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STEEL BARS
FOR AUTOMOTIVE A P P L I C AT I O N S
Steel bar applications in automotive

M
ost automotive powertrain applica-
tions require specific steel properties
engines and drive trains must that mandate very tight control of
meet stringent requirements for manufacturing techniques. As a re-
micro-cleanliness and machinability, sult, steelmaking practices must have high levels
of repeatability and process control to meet strin-
in addition to tightly controlled gent micro-cleanliness requirements. In addition,
chemistry and hardenability. chemical composition and ranges must be tightly
controlled to meet hardenability, machinability,
and grain size requirements.
John Bayer* High-strength steel bars are specified for
MacSteel camshafts and crankshafts in today’s smaller, more
Jackson, Michigan highly powered engines and drivetrains because
they provide required formability, strength, and
*Member of ASM International fatigue resistance. This article describes the com-
position, properties, and applications of high
• Constant Velocity Joints (CVJ) are integral to most all drivetrains, strength steel bars. ■
especially those involving front or all-wheel drives. The majority of CVJ’s
are produced from 0.45 - 0.55%C grades on multi-stage warm form • Differential, side, and pinion gears are gen-
presses. CVJ products are also produced from low carbon, alloy carbur- erally produced from 0.15 to 0.27%C, low alloy steel,
izing grades, and can be cold formed or hot forged. The warm or cold and are carburized after manufacture. Larger gearing
formed parts are generally produced from bar that has been machine can be made of a medium carbon alloy that is through-
turned or cold drawn to allow for near net shaped parts in these closed die hardened prior to machining. Grade selection de-
operations. The low carbon parts are carburized, and the shafts of these pends on the specific application, but it also should
parts are induction hardened. be related to any “mating” parts so that wear
and strength characteristics may be
matched.
• Drive train shafting and axles are
generally produced from either a hot-
rolled or turned, cold-finished bar with
carbon ranging 0.40 to 0.60%. Some
shafting/axle product may require
minor alloying, depending on
strength requirements. Drive axles
may be produced with hot up-
setting for flanges and with ma-
chined splines.

• Camshafts are generally produced from hot-

rolled bar with a cold-finished surface that has been
machine-turned. The majority of steel camshafts are pro-
duced by machining, with no prior metal forming. Both
carbon and alloy grades are suitable, but most machined
camshafts are produced from grade 1045 – 1060 steel with
elevated sulfur (0.035-0.050%) to enhance machinability.
Bar product is generally normalized and machined-straight-
ened prior to camshaft manufacturing. This allows for con-
sistent microstructure and straightness, which improves
both the machining and induction hardening processes. • Crankshafts are most often
The 0.50% carbon level allows for excellent surface wear produced from medium to high carbon
resistance on both bearing journals and cam lobes. In ad- grades with elevated manganese (15xx
dition, the high strength allows some manufacturers to grades). Additionally, vanadium or boron may be
center-drill for hollow camshafts, thus reducing weight. added to provide higher strength. These parts are hot forged, and
High-performance racing camshafts are produced from may be twisted during forging for alignment. The journals for both
low-carbon alloy grades that provide higher strength and the main and connecting rod bearing surfaces are induction hard-
fatigue life. Furthermore, these parts are carburized to ened before final grinding. These higher strength steels provide for
provide a higher surface hardness for enhanced wear smaller, lighter weight crankshafts that still meet the higher torque
resistance. requirements for smaller, more powerful engines.

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Effects of common alloying elements in automotive steels

Element Effects
Carbon The principal strengthening element in steel. It can have a great effect on numerous metallurgical properties.
Increased carbon levels can provide increased hardness and strength. Lower carbon (less than 0.25%) improves
weldability, ductility, and toughness at the expense of strength.
Manganese Increases strength and toughness. Manganese has one of the strongest Alloying elements have a major impact
elemental effects on steel’s hardenability (the ability of steel to harden at on properties of steel and the subsequent
a depth from the surface through quenching). Higher levels have a costs of part manufacture. As every engi-
negative effect on weldability. neer knows, the goal is to develop a steel
chemistry that will meet all the required
Sulfur Considered an impurity, except when intentionally added to improve objectives with the most cost-effective
machinability. It combines with manganese to produce manganese manufacturing process.
sulfide (MnS) inclusions, which assist as “chip breakers” in machining The sulfur level of steels provided for
steels. Higher sulfur levels have a detrimental effect on impact resistance. many powertrain applications is gener-
Silicon A deoxidizer, it is added to steel to tie up free oxygen. The term “killed ally elevated to a level to provide max-
steel” is used when it is deoxidized, thus providing improved internal imum machinability without negatively
soundness and surface quality. Higher levels slightly increase impacting product performance. The
hardenability; however, silicon can have a negative impact on hardenability (the ability of steel to develop
machinability. a specific hardness level at a depth from
Table continues on next page the quenched surface) is generally tightly
controlled through chemistry. This allows
the engineer to define specific strength and
toughness criteria based on the needs and
geometry of the part.

• The majority of transmission

main and counter shafts, in addition
to input and output shafts, are produced
from medium carbon grades (0.40 to
0.55%C) and are cold or warm formed.
These shafts have spline gearing that is cold
roll formed or machined, then induction
hardened. Transmission and transfer case
gearing consists predominantly of alloy car-
burizing steel that is warm or hot forged, surface
hardened, and machined.

• Smaller shafting for Constant

Velocity Joints (CVJ) is generally cold
drawn bar product with rolled splines. The
spline gearing area of drive shafts is pre-
dominantly induction hardened. Shafting,
like gearing, requires machinability, and
shafts must be able to develop specific
strength, fatigue, and wear properties after
surface hardening or heat treatment.

• Yokes are predominantly hot forged from 0.35 to 0.45%C grades, much of which may be
resulfurized (11xx series) to improve machinability. Yoke ears are machined, and the spline
gearing may be machined or formed on either the ID or OD of the shaft. After machining, these
parts are induction hardened. Yokes may be friction welded to longer shafting (solid or hollow)
if required, or mated with hollow aluminum drive shafting for weight reduction. Yoke spiders
are generally produced from low carbon, carburizing alloy grades. They are then warm formed for
net or near net shape control before hardening and final grinding.

• Hubs and spindles (wheel bearings) are pro-

duced from higher carbon (>0.50%), bearing quality
steel. These parts are hot forged, induction hardened,
and machined. New generation wheel bearings have
bearing races that are not external, but instead are de-
signed into the part. This requires a machined and
ground, hardened raceway, hence the steel cleanli-
ness is critical.

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Effects of common alloying elements in automotive steels, continued

Element Effects
Nickel When combined with other alloying elements, it produces steels with excellent strength and low-temperature
toughness in the quenched and tempered condition.
Chromium Provides wear resistance, hardenability, and low temperature toughness. At high levels, it provides corrosion and
oxidation resistance, and assists in maintaining strength levels at elevated temperatures.
Molybdenum Has a strong effect on hardenability (similar to manganese). Molybdenum also increases strength at elevated
temperatures.
Aluminum Acts as a deoxidizer and helps control grain size. It can have a negative impact on machinability.
Columbium Helps produce fine grain steel, and improves the strength of micro-alloyed steels.
(Niobium)
Vanadium Also helps produce fine grain steel. Additionally, it can be used to increase strength, impact toughness, and
hardenability. Vanadium can have a negative impact on machinability.
Titanium Primarily a deoxidizer and nitrogen scavenger in the making of boron steels. Also acts as a grain refiner. Titanium
can have a detrimental effect on machinability.
Boron Increases hardenability in steel with less than 0.80% carbon, replacing other alloying elements.

Common bar steel grades: properties and applications

Carbon grades
Grade Key properties Typical applications
1016-1025 Carburizing steel with considerably better machining Very suitable for carburized parts that require consider-
characteristics than more formable lower-carbon steels. able cold forming. Camshafts, bearing retainers, and
Recommended for die forging and hot upsetting. chain rollers are typical parts that are carburized.
Commonly selected for low-strength-fastener Low-strength bolts, nuts, rivets, tie rod ends, and a
applications. Widely used for inexpensive mass- variety of general hardware are among the products
produced carburized parts; popular carburizing steel. that are not carburized. Cold-extruded piston pins.
Can be strengthened by cold working or surface Widely used for low-strength bolts and cold-formed
hardened by carburizing or cyaniding. Relatively parts. Used in the case-hardened condition for
soft. Good weldability and formability. internal-combustion engine parts where cold strength
is not critical.
1030 On the low end of the medium carbon types. Selected Very suitable for small parts of moderate strength.
instead of low-carbon steels where higher mechanical Used for parts that are cold headed; before cold
properties are needed. Its hardness and strength can heading, it is usually spheroidize annealed to improve
be increased by heat treatment or cold working. workability. Popular for gear and sprocket production.
Camshafts, tie rods, wheels, hubs, and other similar
applications.
1038 Offers advantages in notch toughness . Response to Widely used in medium-strength, heat-treated forgings
1137 hardening is well suited for applications requiring intended for a variety of components. Crankshafts,
1141 some machining in the quenched and tempered hubs, connecting rods, steering arms, axles, camshafts,
condition. Strength can be increased either by hardening couplings, yokes, and gears are typical applications;
or by cold drawing. Response to die forging and hot selection depends primarily on strength requirements,
upsetting is excellent. details or fabrication and processing, and cost.
1045 Better mechanical properties than 1038, due to higher Used for a variety of medium-to-high-strength
carbon. Response to hardening is well suited to heat-treated forgings in automotive applications.
applications that require machining in the quenched Frequently cold-drawn to specified mechanical
condition. Strength is increased by hardening or cold properties for use without heat treatment in some
drawing. Good for normal machining operations. applications.
1050-1060 Readily forged, formed, and upset at elevated Widely used for medium-strength, forged parts and
temperatures. Extensive deformation at room accessories, particularly those requiring good torsional
temperatures is not recommended. Combines strength strength and some abrasion resistance. Typical
with moderate resistance to abrasion and wear in the automotive applications include camshafts, CVJs, and
heat-treated condition. Response to hardening is excellent. input/output shafts.
1070 Superior response to hardening by heating to the Used for springs, and a variety of parts requiring good
appropriate temperature and quenching in either water or fatigue resistance, moderate toughness, and resistance
oil. When quenched and tempered, moderately tough and to mechanical shock. In spring applications, grade 1070
resistant to cracking and fatigue-type failure. Superior is preferred for lighter sections and lighter loads,
forging characteristics. whereas grade 1080, because of higher hardenability
and strength, can be employed where heavier sections
are required. Used for integrated wheel bearings –
hubs & spindles. Good for induction hardening in
applications requiring a relatively thin, hard case for wear
resistance augmented by a strong core for load-bearing
and shock resistance. Widely used in the manufacture of
case-hardened shafts and gears.
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Common bar steel grades: properties and applications, continued

Grade Key properties Typical applications
Carbon manganese grades
1522 Especially suited to heat treating by either normalizing or Increasingly popular as an automotive gear steel, for
quenching in water and tempering to reasonably high- applications such as pinions and side gears. Can be
strength levels. Can be carburized for high surface hardness. carburized by the various methods.
1541 Responds in much the same manner as an alloy grade in Suitable for complex automotive transmission
that through-hardening can be obtained in limited sections component shafting where splines and gears are an
and uniform strength levels can be engineered into the integral part of the shaft. Used for automotive
finished component. Can be induction hardened. connecting rods.
1552 Higher carbon level provides higher surface hardness. Automotive axle components where the material can be
induction hardened to high surface hardness and
uniform high-strength level can be maintained through
the balance of the cross section.
Through-hardening alloy grades
4140 Slightly difficult to process, is rarely cold formed but rather Heavy gears, piston rods, heavy-duty crankshafts.
forged or machined. Used in Q&T or N&T condition. Can be used for demanding applications requiring high
Can be heat treated to a high-strength level over a wide strength and toughness
range of sizes. Has good toughness.
4340 Readily hot forged. Should be full annealed for machining, Used for large industrial gears . Used for shafting,
spheroidize annealed for cold forming. Used in Q&T or piston rods.
N&T condition.
5140 Should be fully annealed to facilitate machining. Should be Gears, light shafting.
spheroidize annealed for cold forging or extruding. Used
predominantly in the Q&T or N&T condition.
8640 Readily hot forged. Should be fully annealed for machining, Industrial gears, automotive ball studs.
spheroidize annealed for cold forming. Used in Q&T or
N&T condition.
Carburizing alloy grades
4027 Can be hot forged. Can be machined in the as-rolled Used for carburized gears in automotive applications.
condition. Can be cold forged to a limited degree. Higher
core hardness than the usual gear steel compositions.
4118 Can be hot or cold formed. Can be machined without prior Used principally for automotive carburized gears
annealing. Carburized by conventional methods subjected to moderate loading.
4320 Similar to 4620 in forging and other processing. Has higher Widely used for carburized bearings.
hardenability than 4620. Good for carburized gears for
heavy loading.
4620 Can be forged similarly to the other carburizing grades.
Excellent for gears for moderate and heavy-duty
Generally requires thermal treatment to facilitate coldapplications.
forming or machining. AISI Grade
Designation System
AISI System of designations for commonly used grades The American Iron &
Steel Institute (AISI), the
Grade Grade American Society for
designation Steel Types designation Steel Types Testing and Materials
10xx Carbon Steel Grades 51xx Chromium 0.80, 0.95 or 1.05 % (ASTM), and the Society
of Automotive Engineers
11xx Resulfurized Carbon Steel Grades 51xxx Carbon 1.00 % - Chromium 0.50, 1.00 (SAE) provide standards
12xx Rephosphorized and Resulfurized or 1.45 % for general specifications
Carbon Steel Grades 86xx Nickel 0.55 % - Chromium 0.50 % - when ordering steel.
13xx Manganese 1.60 to 1.90 % Molybdenum 0.20 % However, it should be
noted that very little bar
15xx Manganese 1.00 to 1.35 % 87xx Nickel 0.55 % - Chromium 0.50 % -
steel for automotive ap-
Molybdenum 0.25 %
23xx Nickel 3.50 % plications is supplied to
93xx Nickel 3.25 % - Chromium 1.20 % - general requirements.
33xx Nickel 3.50 % - Chromium 1.55 % Molybdenum 0.12 %
40xx Molybdenum 0.25 % 94xx Manganese 1.00 % - Nickel 0.45 % -
41xx Chromium 0.95 % - Molybdenum 0.20 % Chromium 0.10 % - Molybdenum 0.12 %
For more information:
43xx Nickel 1.80 % - Chromium 0.50 or 97xx Nickel 0.55 % - Molybdenum 0.20 % - John Bayer, MacSteel,
0.80 % - Molybdenum 0.25 % Chromium 0.17 % One Jackson Square
46xx Nickel 1.80 % - Molybdenum 0.25 % 98xx Nickel 1.00 % - Chromium 0.80 % - Jackson, MI 49201
Molybdenum 0.25 % tel: 517/782-0415
48xx Nickel 3.50 % - Molybdenum 0.25 % e-mail: [email protected]
50xx Chromium 0.30 or 0.60 % Web site: www.macsteel.com.

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