Multiplexing

MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater
than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.
Dividing a link into channels
•There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
•frequency-division multiplexing,
•wavelength-division multiplexing, and
•time-division multiplexing.

•The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital
signals.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.

1. The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a

multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream
(many-to- one).
2. At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer
(DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its component
transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their
corresponding lines.
link
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
 It is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
 In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate
different carrier frequencies.
 These modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that can be transported by the link.
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth
guard bands to prevent signals from overlapping.
 In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the
original data frequencies. Following figure is a conceptual
diagram of multiplexing process.
 The demultiplexer uses a series of filters
to decompose the multiplexed signal into
its constituent component signals.
 The individual signals are then passed to a
demodulator that separates them from
their carriers and passes them to the
output lines.
Example : Assume that a voice channel occupies a
bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice
channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20
to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency
domain. Assume there are no guard bands.

Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in following figure. We use
the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24 to
28kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-
kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them.
 Example
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a
need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required bandwidth is at
least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in following Figure.
 Application of FDM
1. A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio
broadcasting, T.V. Broadcasting and The first generation of
cellular telephones .
2. Radio uses the air as the transmission medium.
3. A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned to AM radio. All
radio stations need to share this band. Each AM station needs
10kHz of bandwidth.
4. Each station uses a different carrier frequency, which means it is
shifting its signal and multiplexing.
5. The signal that goes to the air is a combination of signals. A
receiver receives all these signals, but filters (by tuning) only the
one which is desired.
6. Without multiplexing, only one AM station could broadcast to the
common link, the air.
• The situation is similar in FM broadcasting. However, FM has a
wider band of 88 to 108 MHz because each station needs a
bandwidth of 200 kHz.

• Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting.

Each TV channel has its own bandwidth of 6 MHz.

• The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation)

also uses FDM. Each user is assigned two 30-kHz channels, one
for sending voice and the other for receiving. The voice signal,
which has a bandwidth of 3 kHz (from 300 to 3300 Hz), is
modulated by using FM.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 It is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of

fiber-optic cable.
 It multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto
a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths
of laser light.
 Although WDM technology is very complex, the
basic idea is very simple. We want to combine
multiple light sources into one single light at the
multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer.
 The combining and splitting of light sources are
easily handled by a prism.
 Usingthis technique, a multiplexer can be made to
combine several input beams of light, each containing a
narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a
wider band of frequencies.
A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.
Following figure shows the concept.

Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

 …Continue
 This is a form of Frequency division multiplexing
(FDM) but is commonly called Wavelength division
multiplexing.
 The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly
applied to an optical carrier (which is typically described
by its wavelength), whereas frequency-division
multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier (which is
more often described by frequency).
 The WDM channels are separated in wavelength to
avoid cross-talk when they are (de)multiplexed by a non-
ideal optical fiber.
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process
that allows several connections to share the high
bandwidth of a link.
 Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM,
time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of
time in the link.
 In TDM, the multiplexer accepts the input from each
individual end user, breaks each signal into segments,
and assigns the segments to the composite signal in a
rotating, repeating sequence.
 TDM Continue…

At the other end of the long-distance cable, the

individual signals are separated out by means of a
circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the
proper end users.
 Synchronous TDM
 In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an
allotment in the output even if it is not sending data.
 In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input
connection is divided into units, where each input
occupies one input time slot which can be 1 bit, one
character, or one block of data.
 Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one
output time slot.
 However, the duration of an output time slot is n times
shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input
time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is
the number of connections.
Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing
side and the other on the demultiplexing side. The switches are synchronized
and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions. On the multiplexing
side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving. On
the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
Empty Slots
•Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not have
data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.
•Following figure shows a case in which one of the input lines has no data to
send and one slot in another input line has discontinuous data.
•The first output frame has three slots filled, the second frame has two slots
filled, and the third frame has three slots filled. No frame is full.
•This problem can be removed in Statistical TDM.
Data Rate Management
One problem with TDM is how to handle a disparity in the input data rates. In
all our discussion so far, we assumed that the data rates of all input lines were
the same. However, if data rates are not the same, three strategies, or a combination
of them, can be used. We call these three strategies multilevel multiplexing, multiple-
slot allocation, and pulse stuffing.
1. Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input
line is a multiple of others. For example, in following figure, we have two
inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps. The first two input lines can be
multiplexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last three. A second
level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.
2. Multiple-Slot Allocation Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than
one slot in a frame to a single input line. For example, we might have an
input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of another input. In following
figure, the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the
output. We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs
out of one.
3. Pulse Stuffing Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers
of each other. Therefore, neither of the above two techniques can be applied.
One solution is to make the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and
then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates. This will increase
their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing.
The idea is shown in following figure. The input with a data rate of 46 is
pulse-stuffed to increase the rate to 50 kbps. Now multiplexing can take place.
 Frame Synchronizing
 The implementation of TDM is not as simple as that of FDM.
Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is
a major issue.
 If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized,
a bit belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong
channel.
 For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually
added to the beginning of each frame.
 These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to
frame, that allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the
incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots
accurately. In most cases, this synchronization information
consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating between 0 and 1, as
shown in the next slide…
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
 In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are
dynamically allocated to improve band- width
efficiency.
 Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to
send it is given a slot in the output frame.
 The number of slots in each frame is less than the
number of input lines.
 The multiplexer checks each input line in round-
robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the
line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and
checks the next line.
 Difference between Synchronous TDM and
Statistical TDM
 An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied
by data; in statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as
well as the address of the destination.
 In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing;
 Synchronization and pre-assigned relationships between the
inputs and outputs serve as an address.
 We know, for example, that input 1 always goes to input 2. If
the multiplexer and the de-multiplexer are synchronized, this is
guaranteed.
 Where as in statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed
relation- ship between the inputs and outputs because
there are no pre-assigned or reserved slots.
TDM slot comparison
Slot Size
Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the
data size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. For
example, it would be inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address is 3
bits. This would mean an overhead of 300 percent. In statistical TDM, a block of
data is usually many bytes while the address is just a few bytes.

No Synchronization Bit
There is another difference between synchronous and statistical TDM, but this time
it is at the frame level. The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so
we do not need synchronization bits.

Bandwidth
In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity of
the link based on the statistics of the load for each channel. If on average only x
percent of the input slots are filled, the capacity of the link reflects this. Of course,
during peak times, some slots need to wait.