PREREQUSITE TOPIC (BASIC OF SEMICONDUCTOR, DIODE AND

TRANSISTOR)
Every material in nature has certain properties. These properties define the behavior of the
materials. Material Science is a branch of electronics that deals with the study of flow of
electrons in various materials or spaces, when they are subjected to various conditions.
Due to the intermixing of atoms in solids, instead of single energy levels, there will be bands of
energy levels formed. These set of energy levels, which are closely packed are called as Energy
bands.

Types of Materials

The energy band in which valence electrons are present is called Valence band, while the band
in which conduction electrons are present is called Conduction band. The energy gap between
these two bands is called as Forbidden energy gap.
Electronically, the materials are broadly classified as Insulators, Semiconductors, and
Conductors.
• Insulators − Insulators are such materials in which the conduction cannot take place,
due to the large forbidden gap. Examples: Wood, Rubber.
• Semiconductors − Semiconductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy
gap is small and the conduction takes place if some external energy is applied.
Examples: Silicon, Germanium.
• Conductors − Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap
disappears as the valence band and conduction band become very close that they
overlap. Examples: Copper, Aluminum.

Semiconductors
A Semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and insulators.
The property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a semiconductor, but it
has few properties as follows.
• Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than
conductors.
• Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The resistance in
semiconductors increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.
• The Conducting properties of a Semi-conductor change, when a suitable metallic
impurity is added to it, which is a very important property.
The Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics.
A semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor. But the
conduction capability of this pure form is too low. In order to increase the conduction capability
of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add some impurities. This process of adding impurities
is called as Doping. Now, this doped intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic
Semiconductor.
The impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities. Depending upon
these types of impurities, another classification is done. When a pentavalent impurity is added
to a pure semiconductor, it is called as N-type extrinsic Semiconductor. As well, when
a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called as P-type extrinsic
Semiconductor.

P-N Junction

When an electron moves from its place, a hole is said to be formed there. So, a hole is the
absence of an electron. If an electron is said to be moved from negative to positive terminal, it
means that a hole is being moved from positive to negative terminal.
The materials mentioned above are the basics of semiconductor technology. The N-
type material formed by adding pentavalent impurities has electrons as its majority
carriers and holes as minority carriers. While, the P-type material formed by adding trivalent
impurities have holes as its majority carriers and electrons as minority carriers.
Let us try to understand what happens when the P and N materials are joined together.
If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a
junction, as shown in the figure below.
A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has electrons as
the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend to go to n-side,
whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.
As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each other to
neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the positive and
negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as shown in the figure.

The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the formation of
a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now free from
movable charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and maintain a region of
space between them without any charge carriers. As this region acts as a barrier between P and
N type materials, this is also called as Barrier junction. This has another name called
as Depletion region meaning it depletes both the regions. There occurs a potential difference
VD due to the formation of ions, across the junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents
further movement of holes and electrons through the junction. This formation is called as
a Diode.

Biasing of a Diode
When a diode or any two terminal components are connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse
biased condition.

Forward Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode to
the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward
biased condition.
This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased and helps in more
conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.

Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode to
the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse
biased condition.
This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more reverse biased and helps in
minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot conduct in reverse biased condition.

Transistor
A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow
and acts as a switch or gate for signals.

Uses of a transistor

• A transistor acts as an Amplifier, where the signal strength has to be increased.

• A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available options.
• It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.
The three terminals of a transistor are –(i) Emitter has a moderate size and is heavily doped as
its main function is to supply a number of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes. (ii)
Base is thin and lightly doped and Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the
emitter to the collector. (iii) Collector is a bit larger in size than emitter and base and it
is moderately doped. Its main function of collecting the carriers and dissipate the excess
energy. Due to the specific functions of emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable.
Transistors are two types- either NPN or PNP. The arrow-head in the below figures indicated
the emitter of a transistor and flow of current when emitter base junction is forward biased.

Transistor Biasing
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of
both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply.
• The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive supply
to make the circuit Forward bias.
• The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative supply
to make the circuit Reverse bias.
By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit
higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse bias has
to be applied at the collector junction.

Operation of PNP Transistor

The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type
material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very
low percent of holes re-combine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current
which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to
constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills the
space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows
through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a
hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
Advantages of Transistors

There are many advantages of using a transistor, such as −

• High voltage gain.

• Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
• Most suitable for low power applications.
• Smaller and lighter in weight.
• Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
• No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
• Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.

There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due to
lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature dependent.
DIODE CLAMPING CIRCUITS (WITH AND WITHOUT BIAS)
A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal. Actually, the positive and
negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels using the clamping circuits. As the
DC level gets shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter.
A Clamper circuit can be defined as the circuit that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor
that shifts the waveform to a desired DC level without changing the actual appearance of the
applied signal.

Types of Clamper:

1) Positive Clamper Circuit

A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When a negative peak of the signal is raised above to
the zero level, then the signal is said to be positively clamped.

Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode is reverse biased.
The output is not considered at this point of time. During the negative half cycle, at the peak
value, the capacitor gets charged with negative on one plate and positive on the other. The
capacitor is now charged to its peak value Vm. The diode is forward biased and conducts
heavily.
During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive Vm while the diode gets
reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be- 𝑉0 =
𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚
Hence the signal is positively clamped as shown in the above figure. The output signal changes
according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to the charge on the
capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.

2) Positive Clamper with Positive Vr

A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the positive clamper
with positive reference voltage is constructed as below.
During the positive half cycle, the reference voltage is applied through the diode at the output
and as the input voltage increases, the cathode voltage of the diode increase with respect to the
anode voltage and hence it stops conducting. During the negative half cycle, the diode gets
forward biased and starts conducting. The voltage across the capacitor and the reference voltage
together maintain the output voltage level.

3) Positive Clamper with Negative Vr

A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the positive clamper
with positive reference voltage is constructed as below.

During the positive half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor and the reference voltage
together maintain the output voltage level. During the negative half-cycle, the diode conducts
when the cathode voltage gets less than the anode voltage. These changes make the output
voltage as shown in the above figure.

4) Negative Clamper

A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that
shifts the output signal to the negative portion of the input signal. The figure below explains the
construction of a negative clamper circuit.

During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak value 𝑉𝑚 . The diode is
forward biased and conducts. During the negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and
gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be- 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚
Hence the signal is negatively clamped as shown in the above figure. The output signal changes
according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to the charge on the
capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.
 5) Negative clamper with positive Vr

A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper
with positive reference voltage is constructed as below.

Though the output voltage is negatively clamped, a portion of the output waveform is raised to
the positive level, as the applied reference voltage is positive. During the positive half-cycle, the
diode conducts, but the output equals the positive reference voltage applied. During the negative
half cycle, the diode acts as open circuited and the voltage across the capacitor forms the output.

6) Negative Clamper with Negative Vr

A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper
with negative reference voltage is constructed as below.

The cathode of the diode is connected with a negative reference voltage, which is less than that
of zero and the anode voltage. Hence the diode starts conducting during positive half cycle,
before the zero voltage level. During the negative half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor
appears at the output. Thus the waveform is clamped towards the negative portion.
Application of Clampers:
1. Used to remove distortions
2. Used as voltage multipliers
3. Used for the protection of amplifiers
4. Used as a test circuit.
 DIODE CLIPPING CIRCUITS
CLIPPER:
A wave shaping circuit which controls the shape of output waveform by removing or clipping a portion of the
applied wave is known clipper circuit. For a clipping circuit at least two components a diode (which act as a closed
switch when forward biased and an open circuit when reverse biased) and a resistor are required. Sometimes a dc
battery is also used to fix the clipping level. Clippers are used in radar, digital and other electronic devices.

The important diode clippers are: (1) Positive clipper, (2) Negative clipper and (3) Two level clipper

POSITIVE CLIPPER:
In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive than cathode) during the positive half
cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the diode to become forward biased, it must have the input voltage
magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a germanium diode).
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself constant at 0.7V until the
sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus the output voltage which is taken across the diode can never
exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive than anode) blocking current flow
through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative half of the sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load
unaltered. Thus the diode limits the positive half of the input waveform and is known as a positive clipper circuit.

Fig. 3.1 POSITIVE CLIPPER

NEGATIVE CLIPPER:
Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal waveform and
limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the positive half cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the
diode limits the negative half cycle of the input voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.

Fig. 3.2 NEGATIVE CLIPPER

TWO LEVEL CLIPPER:
If we connected two diodes in inverse parallel as shown, then both the positive and negative half cycles would be
clipped as diode D1 clips the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform while diode D2 clips the negative
half cycle. Then diode clipping circuits can be used to clip the positive half cycle, the negative half cycle or both.
For ideal diodes the output waveform above would be zero. However, due to the forward bias voltage drop across
the diodes the actual clipping point occurs at +0.7 volts and –0.7 volts respectively. But we can increase this ±0.7V
threshold to any value we want up to the maximum value, (VPEAK) of the sinusoidal waveform either by connecting
together more diodes in series creating multiples of 0.7 volts, or by adding a voltage bias to the diodes.

Fig. 3.3 TWO LEVEL CLIPPER

POSITIVE BIASED CLIPPER:

To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias voltage,VBIAS is added in series
with the diode to produce a combination clipper as shown. The voltage across the series combination must be greater
than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode becomes sufficiently forward biased to conduct. For example, if the VBIAS level
is set at 4.0 volts, then the sinusoidal voltage at the diode’s anode terminal must be greater than 4.0+0.7= 4.7 Volts
for it to become forward biased. Any anode voltage levels above this bias point are clipped off.

Fig. 3.4 POSITIVE BIASED CLIPPER

NEGATIVE BIASED CLIPPER:

Likewise, by reversing the diode and the battery bias voltage, when a diode conducts the negative half cycle of the
output waveform is held to a level –VBIAS – 0.7V as shown.

Fig. 3.5 NEGATIVE BIASED CLIPPER

TWO LEVEL BIASED CLIPPER:
A variable diode clipping or diode limiting level can be achieved by varying the bias voltage of the diodes. If both
the positive and the negative half cycles are to be clipped, then two biased clipping diodes are used. But for both
positive and negative diode clipping, the bias voltage need not be the same. The positive bias voltage could be at one
level, for example 4 volts, and the negative bias voltage at another, for example 6 volts as shown.

Fig. 3.6 TWO LEVEL BIASED CLIPPER

When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the waveform at +4.7 V.
Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore, all positive voltages above +4.7 V and
negative voltages below –6.7 V are automatically clipped.
The advantage of biased diode clipping circuits is that it prevents the output signal from exceeding preset voltage
limits for both half cycles of the input waveform, which could be an input from a noisy sensor or the positive and
negative supply rails of a power supply.

ZENER DIODE CLIPPING CIRCUIT:

One easy way of creating biased diode clipping circuits without the need for an additional emf supply is to use Zener
Diodes. In the forward region, the zener acts just like an ordinary silicon diode with a forward voltage drop of 0.7V
(700mV) when conducting. However, in the reverse bias region, the current is blocked until the zener diodes
breakdown voltage is reached. After breakdown, the reverse current through the zener increases sharply but the
zener voltage, 𝑉𝑧 across the device remains constant.
The zener diode is acting like a biased diode clipping circuit with the bias voltage being equal to the zener
breakdown voltage. In this circuit during the positive half of the waveform the zener diode is reverse biased so the
waveform is clipped at the zener breakdown voltage,𝑉𝑍𝐷1 . During the negative half cycle the zener acts like a
normal diode with its usual 0.7 V junction value.

Fig. 3.7 CLIPPER USING ZENER DIODE

If back to back zener diode is connected it will behave as a two level biased clipper circuit. The positive half cycle
will be clipped at the sum of breakdown voltage of zener diode, 𝑍𝐷1 plus 0.7 V from 𝑍𝐷2 and vice versa for the
negative half cycle.

Fig. 3.8 TWO LEVEL BIASED CLIPPER USING ZENER DIODE

 RECTIFYING CIRCUITS AND SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER
Working of a Bridge Rectifier:
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit , is that of the Full
Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a
closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and
the load to the other side .

Fig. 6.1 Bridge rectifier circuit

The four diodes labeled 𝐷1 to 𝐷4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting current during each
half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 conduct in series while
diodes 𝐷3 and 𝐷4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load.

Fig. 6.2 Direction of current flow through bridge rectifier circuit under positive half cycle of the input signal
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes 𝐷3 and 𝐷4 conduct in series, but diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 switch
“OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

Fig. 6.3 Direction of current flow through bridge rectifier circuit under negative half cycle of the input signal
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also
unidirectional and the same as two diode full-wave rectifier.

Analysis:
Most of the analysis of full wave bridge rectifier is same as that of a full wave rectifier because output waveform are
same.
2𝐼𝑚
(i) D.C. or Average current: 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝜋

𝐼𝑚
(ii) RMS current: 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑚 ⁄√2
(iii) Form factor: 𝐹 = = = 1.11
𝐼𝑑𝑐 2𝐼𝑚 ⁄𝜋
(iv) Ripple factor: 0.48
81.2
(v) Rectifier Efficiency = 1+(2𝑅 = 81.2% if 𝑅𝑓 = 0 [ in case of bridge rectifier two diodes are on
𝑓 ⁄ 𝑅𝐿 )

instead of one diode for each half cycle of the input signal so 2𝑅𝑓 is taken instead of 𝑅𝑓 ].
(vi) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): Peak inverse voltage is the maximum possible voltage across a diode
when it is reverse biased. Consider that diode 𝐷1 and 𝐷3 is in forward biased i.e., conducting and diode
𝐷2 and 𝐷4 is reversed biased i.e., nonconducting. In this case a voltage Vm is developed across each
diode . So PIV of each diode is Vm .

Shunt Capacitor Filter:

The output of a rectifier is pulsating in nature. It contains a large ripple components. These ripple components are
filtered by putting a filter circuit between rectifier and load . filtering is frequently done by shunting the load with a
capacitor. This type of filter is known as shunt capacitor filter. the action of the filter circuit depends upon the fact
that a capacitor stores energy when conducting(charging) and delivers this energy to the load during non
conduction(discharging). Through this process the ripple components are considerably reduced.

Full wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter:

Fig. 6.4 Full wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter

Initially, the capacitor is uncharged. That means no voltage exists between the plates of a capacitor. So when the
voltage is turned on, the charging of the capacitor happens immediately.
During this conduction period, the capacitor charges to the maximum value of the input supply voltage. The
capacitor stores a maximum charge exactly at the quarter positive half cycle in the waveform. At this point, the
supply voltage is equal to the capacitor voltage.
When the AC voltage starts decreasing and becomes less than the capacitor voltage, then the capacitor starts slowly
discharging. The discharging of the capacitor is very slow as compared to the charging of the capacitor. So the
capacitor does not get enough time to completely discharged. Before the complete discharge of the capacitor
happens, the charging again takes place. So only half or more than half of the capacitor charge get discharged.

When the input AC supply voltage reaches the negative half cycle, the diode D 1 is reverse biased (blocks electric
current) whereas the diode D2 is forward biased (allows electric current).The diode (D2) current reaches the filter and
charges the capacitor. However, the charging of the capacitor happens only when the applied AC voltage is greater
than the capacitor voltage.

The capacitor is not completely uncharged, so the charging of the capacitor does not happens immediately. When
the supply voltage becomes greater than the capacitor voltage, the capacitor again starts charging.

Fig. 6.5 current flow diagram through capacitor and load resistance

The pulsating Direct Current (DC) produced by the full wave rectifier contains both AC and DC components. We
know that the capacitor allows the AC components and blocks the DC components of the current. When both DC
components and AC components reaches the filter, the DC components experience a high resistance from the
capacitor whereas the AC components experience a low resistance from the capacitor. Electric current always
prefers to flow through a low resistance path. So the AC components will flow through the capacitor whereas the
DC components are blocked by the capacitor. Therefore, they find an alternate path and reach the output load
resistor RL. The flow of AC components through the capacitor is nothing but the charging of a capacitor.

Thus, the filter converts the pulsating DC into pure DC.

Calculation of ripple factor for full wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter:

Let 𝑇2 = total non-conducting time of capacitor

𝐼𝑑𝑐 = average value of the capacitor discharge current over an interval of 𝑇2 .

Charge lost by capacitor during interval 𝑇2 is given by- (𝑞)𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 × 𝑇2

The charge lost is replaced during interval 𝑇1 when the voltage across capacitor changes by an amount equal to peak
to peak voltage of ripple 𝑉𝑟 . So the change in the charge of capacitor is given by-

(𝑞)𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉𝑟 × 𝐶

But (𝑞)𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = (𝑞)𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

Or 𝑉𝑟 𝐶 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑇2 ……………(1)
Now we assume ripple is small and the time 𝑇1 for the recharge of the capacitor is small in comparison with the time
𝑇2 of the discharge i.e., 𝑇2 ≫ 𝑇1 .
𝑇 1
Now 𝑇2 ≈ = ……………..(2)
2 2𝑓

𝐼𝑑𝑐
Substituting the value of 𝑇2 from equation(2) in equation(1), we get 𝑉𝑟 = 2𝑓𝐶 ……….(3)

According to the assumptions, the ripple waveform will be triangular in nature. The rms value of triangular wave is
independent of the slopes or lengths of straight lines and depends only upon the peak value. Calculation of the rms
𝑉
𝑟
ripple voltage yields- (𝑉𝑟 )𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2√3 ………..(4)

𝐼 𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐
Substituting the value of 𝑉𝑟 from equation(3) in equation(4), we get (𝑉𝑟 )𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 4√3𝑓𝐶 = 4√3𝑓𝐶𝑅
𝐿

(𝑉𝑟 )𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
So, 𝛾 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐
= 4√3𝑓𝐶𝑅
𝐿

Thus ripple may be decreased by increasing C and 𝑅𝐿 or both.

 RECTIFYING CIRCUITS
Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electronic device that converts AC voltage into DC voltage. In other words, it converts alternating
current to direct current. A rectifier is used in almost all electronic devices. Mostly it is used to convert the mains
voltage into DC voltage in the power supply section. By using DC voltage supply electronic devices work.
According to the period of conduction, rectifiers are classified into two categories: Half Wave Rectifier and Full
Wave Rectifier

PN junction diode conducts only during the forward bias condition. Half wave rectifier uses the same principle as
PN junction diode and thus converts AC to DC. In a half-wave rectifier circuit, the load resistance is connected in
series with the PN junction diode. Alternating current is the input of the half-wave rectifier. A step-down
transformer takes an input voltage and the resulting output of the transformer is given to the load resistor and to the
diode.

Working of a Half-Wave Rectifier:

During the positive half cycle, when the secondary winding of the upper end is positive with respect to the lower
end, the diode is under forwarding bias condition and it conducts current. During the positive half-cycles, the input
voltage is applied directly to the load resistance when the forward resistance of the diode is assumed to be zero. The
waveforms of output voltage and output current are the same as that of the AC input voltage.

During the negative half-cycle, when the secondary winding of the lower end is positive with respect to the upper
end, the diode is under reverse bias condition and it does not conduct current. During the negative half-cycle, the
voltage and current across the load remain zero. The magnitude of the reverse current is very small and it is
neglected. So, no power is delivered during the negative half cycle.

Fig. 5.1 Half wave rectifier

Working of a Full-Wave Rectifier:

In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are used, one for each half of the cycle. A multiple winding transformer
is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This
configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the
transformer centre point C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier.

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (RL) with each
diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to
point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
 Fig. 5.2 Full wave rectifier
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C, diode D2conducts in the forward
direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the output
voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms combined.

Analysis:
Let the input voltage 𝑣𝑖 is given by- 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡

The current through diode 𝐷1 and load resistor 𝑅𝐿 is given by-

𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ 𝜋

𝑖1 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜋 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑉𝑚
Where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅
𝑓 +𝑅𝐿

𝑅𝑓 being the diode resistance in ON condition.

Similarly, the current 𝑖2 flowing through diode 𝐷2 and load resistor 𝑅𝐿 is given by

𝑖2 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ 𝜋

𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜋 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

The total current flowing through 𝑅𝐿 is the sum of the two currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 , so 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2

D.C. or Average current:

The average value of output current that a d.c. ammeter will indicate is given by
1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑖1 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) + 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑖2 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)

1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
= 2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) + 2𝜋 ∫𝜋 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
= 𝜋
+ 𝜋
= 𝜋

This is double that of a half wave rectifier.

D.C. Output voltage:
2𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝐿
The d.c. output voltage across load is given by- 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 × 𝑅𝐿 =
𝜋

Thus the d.c. output voltage is twice that of a half wave rectifier.

RMS current: The RMS value of the current is given by-

1⁄
1 𝜋 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)] (since current is of the same form in the two halves)
𝜋

1⁄
𝐼2 𝜋 2
= [ 𝑚 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)]
𝜋

𝐼𝑚
=
√2

Rectifier Efficiency:
𝑃𝑑𝑐
The rectifier efficiency is defined as 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐

2
4𝐼𝑚
2
The d.c. output power 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝜋2
× 𝑅𝐿

2
𝐼𝑚
2 (𝑅
The a.c. input power 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 ) = 2
(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 )

4𝐼2 𝑅 ⁄𝜋2 8 𝑅𝐿 0.812

Since 𝜂 = 𝐼2 (𝑅𝑚 +𝑅
𝐿
= 𝜋2 × (𝑅 = 1+(𝑅
𝑚 𝑓 𝐿 )⁄2 𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 ) 𝑓 ⁄𝑅𝐿 )

81.2
So, percentage efficiency = 1+(𝑅
𝑓 ⁄𝑅𝐿 )

= 81.2% if 𝑅𝑓 = 0

Thus full wave rectifier has efficiency twice that of half wave rectifier.

Form factor:
The form factor of rectified output voltage of a full wave rectifier is given by

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑚 ⁄√2
𝐹= = = 1.11
𝐼𝑑𝑐 2𝐼𝑚 ⁄𝜋

Ripple factor:
The ripple factor 𝛾 is defined as

2 1⁄2
𝐼
𝛾 = [( 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼
) − 1] = (𝐹 2 − 1)1⁄2 = [(1.11)2 − 1]1⁄2 = 0.48
𝑑𝑐

This is a drastic improvement from 1.21 for half wave rectifier.

Regulation:
The d.c. output voltage is given by-
2𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝐿 2𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = =
𝜋 𝜋(𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿)

2𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝑓 2𝑉𝑚
= [1 − ]= − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑓
𝜋 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 𝜋

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum possible voltage across a diode when it is reverse biased. Consider that diode
𝐷1 is in forward biased i.e., conducting and diode 𝐷2 is reversed biased i.e., nonconducting. In this case a voltage Vm
is developed across the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 . Now the voltage across diode 𝐷2 is the sum of the voltage across load
resistor 𝑅𝐿 and voltage across the lower half of transformer secondary Vm . Hence PIV of diode 𝐷2 = 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑚 =
2𝑉𝑚 . Similarly PIV of diode 𝐷1 is 2𝑉𝑚 .