CE 325

HYDRAULICS
ENGR. ROMMEL JAY G. TABANAO
INSTRUCTOR
 VISCOSITY
The property of viscosity is important to engineering practice because it
leads to significant energy loss when moving fluids contact a solid boundary, or
when different zones of fluids are flowing at different velocities.

Viscosity, 𝝁 (MU)

It is measure of a fluid’s resistance to deformation under shear stress. For

example, crude oil has a higher resistance to shear than does water. A perfect
fluid would have no viscosity.
 VISCOSITY
Viscosity, 𝝁 (MU)
Area = A U
Consider two large, parallel plates at a
F
small distance y apart, the space between
them being filled with a fluid. Consider the y
upper plate to move with a constant
velocity U. The fluid in contact the upper
plate will adhere to it and will move with the
𝑭 𝑨𝑼
∝
same velocity U while the fluid in contact 𝑨 𝒚

with the fixed plate will have zero velocity. 𝑈 𝑑𝑣 𝐹

but = = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜏
For small values of U and y, the velocity 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝐴

gradient can be assumed to be a straight 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣

𝜏∝ 𝜏=𝑘 𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
line and F as A, U and y as:
 VISCOSITY
Viscosity, 𝝁 (MU)
Where:
𝑑𝑣 𝜏 𝜏 = shear stress in lb/ft2 or Pa
𝜏=𝜇 𝜇 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑦 𝜇 = absolute viscosity in lb.sec/ft2 (poises)
or Pa – sec.
y = distance between the plates in ft. or m
U = velocity in ft/s or m/s

Kinematic Viscosity, 𝒗 (NU)

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, 𝜇, to it mass
density, 𝜌.
Where:
𝜇 𝜇 = absolute viscosity in lb.sec/ft2 (poises)
𝒗= or Pa – sec.
𝜌 𝜌 = density in kg/m3
 VISCOSITY
The equation

𝑑𝑣
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
is commonly known as Newton’s law of viscosity. Most liquids abide
by this relationship and are called Newtonian fluids. Liquids that do
not abide by this linear relationship are known as non-Newtonian
fluids. These include most house paints and human blood.
 VISCOSITY
Common Units of Viscosity
System Absolute, 𝜇 Kinematic, 𝑣

English lb-sec/ft2 ft2/sec

(slug/ft-sec)
Metric Dyne-s/cm2 cm2/s
(poise) (stroke)
S.I. Pa-s m2/s
(N-s/m2)

Note:

1 poise = 1 dyne-s/cm2 = 0.1 Pa-sec ( 1 dyne = 10-5 N)

1 stroke = 0.0001 m2/s
 Example
A flat plate of 50 cm2 is being pulled over a fixed flat surface at a constant velocity of 45
cm/sec. An oil film of unknown viscosity separates the plate and the fixed surface
distance of 0.1 cm. The force (T) required to pull the plate is measured to be 31.7 N,
and the viscosity of the fluid is constant. Determine the viscosity (absolute).
Solution:
The oil film is assumed to be Newtonian, therefore
𝜏
the equation 𝜇 = 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑦 applies:

𝑇
𝜏= , 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐴
31.7 𝑁
2
𝜇 =
𝑇/𝐴
=
𝑇/𝐴 𝜇 = 50 𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑚 = 1.41 × 10−3 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2
𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑣/∆𝑦 45
𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.1 𝑐𝑚
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Surface Tension, 𝝈 (Sigma)

- It is a material property whereby a liquid at a material interface usually

liquid-gas, exerts a force per unit length along the surface. According to
the theory of molecular attraction, molecules of liquid considerably below
the surface act on each other by forces that are equal in all directions.
However, molecules near the surface have a greater attraction for each
other than they do for molecules below the surface because of the
presence of a different substance above the surface. This produces a
layer of surface molecules on the liquid that act like a stretched
membrane.
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Surface Tension, 𝝈 (Sigma)

(cont.) Because of this membrane effect, each portion of the liquid surface
exerts “tension” on adjacent portions of the surface or on object that are in
contact with the liquid surface. This tension acts in the plane of the
surface, and given by:
𝐹𝜎 = 𝜎𝐿
Where L is the length over which the surface tension acts. Surface tension
for a water-air surface is 0.073 N/m at room temperature.
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Surface Tension, 𝝈 (Sigma)
There are several different cases of surface tension:
Case (a) Spherical droplet Droplet of Liquid of radius r. The surface
tension force is balance by the internal pressure.
𝐹𝜎 = 𝜎𝐿 = 𝑝𝐴
where:
2
(2𝜋𝑟)𝜎 = (𝜋𝑟 )∆𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 Pi and Po = pressure inside and outside
𝜎 = surface tension in N/m
𝟐𝝈
∆𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 = 𝑑 or r = diameter/radius of the droplet in m
𝒓
𝑝 = gage pressure in Pa
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Surface Tension, 𝝈 (Sigma)

There are several different cases of surface tension:

Case (b) is a bubble of radius r that has internal and external surfaces
and the surface tension force acts on both surfaces so,
𝐹𝜎 = 𝜎𝐿 = 𝑝𝐴
where:
2
2(2𝜋𝑟)𝜎 = (𝜋𝑟 )∆𝑃𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 Pi and Po = pressure inside and outside
𝜎 = surface tension in N/m
𝟒𝝈
∆𝑃𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 = 𝑑 or r = diameter/radius of the droplet in m
𝒓
𝑝 = gage pressure in Pa
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Capillarity
Capillarity (Capillarity action) is the name given to the behavior of
the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is
caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the
cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the
containing vessel. Liquid rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and
fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important
when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5mm) in diameter.
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Capillarity

4𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑑

For complete wetting, as with water on

clean glass, the angle is 𝜃 is 0°. Hence the
formula becomes
Where:
4𝜎 ℎ = capillary rise or depression in m
ℎ=
𝛾𝑑 𝛾 = unit weight in N/m3
D = diameter of the tube in m
𝜎 = surface tension in Pa
𝜃 = contact angle
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Contact Angles, 𝜽
Materials Angle, 𝜽

Mercury-glass 140°

Water-paraffin 107°

Water-silver 90°

Kerosene-glass 26°

Glycerin-glass 19°

Water-glass 0°

Ethyl alcohol-glass 0°
 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
The bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝐸𝑣 , is a property that relates changes in volume (e.g.,

expansion or contraction)

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑝 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐸𝐵 = = =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑉/𝑉 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝒅𝒑
𝑬𝑩 = −
𝒅𝑽/𝑽
where dp is the differential pressure change, dV is the differential volume change,
and V is the volume of fluid. Because dV/V is negative for a positive dp, a
negative sign is used in the definition to yield a positive EB. The elasticity is often
call the compressibility of the fluid.
 Compressibility
Compressibility, 𝜷 (Beta)

Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the

fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a
constant temperature process:

∆𝑉 Where:
− 1
𝛽= 𝑉 = ∆𝑉 = change on volume
∆𝑝 𝐸𝐵 𝑉 = original volume
∆𝑝 = change in pressure
𝑑𝑉/𝑉 = change in volume (usually
𝑑𝑉/𝑉 in percent)
𝑜𝑟 𝛽 = −
𝑑𝑝
 Pressure Disturbances

Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in a wave. The velocity or

celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is
expressed as

𝐸𝐵 1
𝑐= =
𝜌 𝛽𝜌
 Property Changes in Ideal Gas

For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by:

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
= (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤)
𝑇1 𝑇2
When temperature is held constant (isothermal condition),
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 (𝐵𝑜𝑦𝑙𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤)
When pressure is held constant,

𝑉1 𝑉1
= (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑒′𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤)
𝑇1 𝑇1
 Property Changes in Ideal Gas
For Adiabatic or Isentropic Condition (No heat exchanged)
𝑝1 𝑉1𝐾 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝐾

𝑘
𝑉1 𝑃2
𝑜𝑟 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉2 𝑃1

𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑘
𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑇1 𝑃1
Where:
𝑃1 = initial absolute pressure of gas 𝑇1 = initial absolute temperature of gas in °𝐾
𝑃2 = final absolute pressure of gas (°𝐾 = °𝐶 + 273)
𝑉1 = initial volume of gas 𝑇2 = initial absolute temperature of gas
𝑉2 = final volume of gas 𝑘 = ratio of the specific heat at constant
pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent.
 Vapor Pressure
Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the
liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The
vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium process.
The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the vapor
pressure or saturation pressure.
The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the
liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the
vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure. Thus, a
liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the
liquid’s tendency to vaporize
 Sample Problems
Example 1: A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a
pressure of 1 MPa and a volume of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 MPa. The bulk
modulus of elasticity (𝐸𝐵 ) of the liquid is:
Solution:

𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝐵 = −
𝑑𝑉/𝑉

2 𝑀𝑃𝑎 − 1 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐸𝐵 = −
(0.995 − 1)/1
𝑬𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
 Sample Problems
Example 2: What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6
percent? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water, 𝐸𝐵 =2.2 GPa.
Solution:
𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝐵 = − 𝑑𝑉/𝑉 𝑃2
𝐸𝐵 = − −0.006𝑉/𝑉
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
2𝑃
𝑃1 = 0 2.2 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 0.006𝑉/𝑉

𝒅𝒑 = 𝑃2 𝑃2 = 0.0132 G𝑃a
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝐚
𝑑𝑉 = −0.6%𝑉 = -0.006V
 Sample Problems
Example 3: Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of
diameter 3mm. Use 𝜎 = 0.0728 𝑁/𝑚 and 𝛾 = 9810 𝑁/𝑚3 for water. Note: 𝜃 = 90°
for water in clean tube.
Solution:

4𝜎
Ca𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒, ℎ=
𝛾𝑑

4(0.0728 𝑁/𝑚)
Ca𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒, ℎ=
9810 𝑁/𝑚3 (0.003 𝑚)
Ca𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒, 𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟗. 𝟗𝒎𝒎
 Sample Problems
Example 4: Estimate the capillary for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in
diameter. Use 𝜎 = 0.514 𝑁/𝑚 and 𝜃 = 140°.
Solution:

4𝜎 cos 𝜃
Ca𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒, ℎ=
𝛾𝑑

𝑁
4 0.514 cos 140°
𝑚
Ca𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒, ℎ=
𝑁
13.6 × 9810 3 (0.002 𝑚)
𝑚
Ca𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒, 𝒉 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟗𝒎 (− 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏)
Ca𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝒉 = 𝟓. 𝟗 𝒎𝒎
 Sample Problems
Example 5: What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm
in diameter which is in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa?
Solution:

4𝜎
p=
𝑑

𝑁 4𝜎
561 𝑃𝑎 =
𝑚2 0.0003 𝑚

𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝑵/𝒎
 THANKS
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