UNIT

• The standard used for the measurement of any physical quantity is called a unit.
• It is an internationally accepted reference standard .
• The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a number (or numerical measure) accompanied
by a unit.
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FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
• The units for the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.
Eg : metre (length), kilogram (mass), second (time)
DERIVED UNITS
• The physical quantities which are derived from Fundamental Quantities are called derived quantities.
• The units obtained for the derived quantities are called derived units.
Eg : joule(J), newton(N), watt…..
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
• In earlier time scientists of different countries were using different systems of units for measurement.
• Three such systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS system
• The base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows :•
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second respectively.
• The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the Système International d’
Unites (French for International System of Units),abbreviated as SI.
• The SI, with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations, was developed and recommended by General
Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971 for international usage in scientific, technical, industrial and
commercial work.
• Because SI units used decimal system, conversions with in the system are quite simple and convenient.
• This system has seven Fundamental units and two supplementary units.
The Fundamental units
The supplementary units are
(a) plane angle
(b) solid angle
The unit for plane angle is radian (rad) and the unit for the solid angle is steradian (sr). Both these are dimensionless quantities
Revision of the International System of Units (SI)

• The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), at its 26th meeting, decides that, effective from 20
May 2019, the International System of Units, the SI, is the system of units in which:
− the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133 atom ΔνCs is 9 192 631 770 Hz,
− the speed of light in vacuum c is 299 792 458 m/s,
− the Planck constant h is 6.626 070 15 × 10-34 J s,
− the elementary charge e is 1.602 176 634 × 10-19 C,
− the Boltzmann constant k is 1.380 649 × 10 -23 J/K,
− the Avogadro constant NA is 6.022 140 76 × 1023 mol-1,
− the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz, Kcd, is 683 lm/W,
• Starting from the new definition of the SI described above in terms of fixed numerical values of the defining
constants, definitions of each of the seven base units are deduced by taking, as appropriate, one or more of these
defining constants to give the following set of definitions, effective from 20 May 2019:

− The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium
frequency ΔνCs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133 atom, to be 9 192
631 770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s-1
− The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of
light in vacuum c to be 299 792 458 when expressed in the unit m/s, where the second is defined in terms of ΔνCs.
− The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck
constant h to be 6.626 070 15 × 10-34 when expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s-1, where the metre
and the second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs.
− The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary
charge e to be 1.602 176 634 × 10 -19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s, where the second is defined in terms
of ΔνCs.
− The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380 649 ×10 -23 when expressed in the unit J K-1, which is equal to kgm2s-2 K-1 where the kilogram,
metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ΔνCs.
− The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 elementary
entities. This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol-1 and is called
the Avogadro number. The amount of substance, symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified
elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified group
of particles.
− The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a given direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical
value of the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed in the
unit lm W-1, which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1 m–2 s3, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c
and ΔνCs.
Significant Figures
• Significant figures are the meaningful digits in a measurement.

• It contains digits which are certain and one additional digit which is uncertain

• The accuracy of measurement depends upon the number of digits up to which the value of a measurement is known

• Greater the number of significant figures the more accurate is the measurement

• The number of Significant figures does not vary by choosing different units
Important rules to determine the number of significant figures
1. All non zero digits are significant
Eg: 4895, No. of Significant Figures: 4
2. All the zeroes in between two non zero digits are significant
Eg: 2006 , No. of Significant Figures: 4
3. For a number which is less than 1 (with only decimal part like 0.0123) the leading zeros are not significant but the trailing zeroes are
significant
Eg: 0.00124 , No. of Significant Figures: 3
0.0012400, No. of Significant Figures: 5
4. For a number without decimal part the trailing zeroes are not significant
Eg: 100 , No. of Significant Figures: 1
5. The trailing zeroes are significant when it comes from a measurement (digits followed by a unit)
Eg: 100 m , No. of Significant Figures: 3
6. A number with both parts (integral part & decimal part) all digits are significant
Eg: 20.1020 , No. of Significant Figures: 6
7. Powers of 10 are not significant
Eg: 6.023 x 1023, No. of Significant Figures: 4
Problems

1. 234.5
2. 400.005
3. 0.00687
4. 50
5. 50 m
6. 50.00
7. 5.1 x 10-2
8. 4.567 x 103
9. 5238 N
10. 4200 kg
11. 34.000 m
12. 0.02340 Nm
ERRORS
• It is the uncertainty in the measurement .
• The error of a measurement is the difference in the true value and the measured value of a quantity.
Types of Errors
The errors in a measurement can be broadly classified as
1.Systematic Errors 2. Random Errors 3. Gross Errors
1.Systematic Errors
• The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative.
• The causes of systematic errors are known. Therefore, such errors can be minimized.
Some of the sources of systematic errors are
(i) Instrumental errors
• which arise from the errors due to imperfect design or manufacture or calibration of the measuring instrument.
• Example: (i) an ordinary metre scale may be worn off at one end
(ii) in a vernier calipers, the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with the zero mark of the main scale
(iii)the temperature graduations of a thermometer may not be accurately calibrated and so on.
• The instrumental errors can be reduced by using more accurate instruments and applying zero correction when required
Calibration error
• Actually errors and calibration are two major issues in measurements.
• Calibration in measurement technology and metrology is the comparison of measurement values delivered by a device under
test with those of a calibration standard of known accuracy.
• Such a standard could be another measurement device of known accuracy.
• The calibration standard is normally traceable to national standard held by a national metrological institute.
• The difference between values indicated by an instrument and those that are actual (standard one) is called calibration error.
• Normally correction card is placed next to the instrument indicating the error.

Calibration may be required for the following reasons.

(i) a new instrument
(ii) after an instrument has been repaired or modified
(iii) When a specified time period has elapsed
(iv) When specified operating hours have elapsed
(v) Before or after a critical measurement
(ii)Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure.
• For example, to determine the temperature of human body, a thermometer placed under the armpit will always give a
temperature lower than actual value of the body temperature.
• The radiation error in experiments on heat is usually ignored
(iii)Personal errors
• It arise due to the inexperience of the observer.
• For example, lack of proper setting of the apparatus, reading an instrument without setting it properly, taking observations
without observing proper precautions
(iv) Errors due to external factors.
• The external conditions such as changes in temperature, pressure, humidity, wind velocity etc. during the experiment may
affect the measurements.
(v) Least Count Error.
• The smallest value that can be measured by a measuring instrument in called the least count of the instrument.
• For example, a metre scale having graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing has a least count of 1 mm or 0.1 cm.
Similarly, a vernier calliper usually has a least count of 0.01cm and a spherometer or a screw gauge usually has
a least count of 0.001 cm.
• All the readings or values measured by any measuring instrument are good only upto its least count.
• Thus, the least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
• Using instrument of higher resolution and by improving experimental techniques, we can reduce the least count error
• Smaller the least count of a measuring device, higher is the accuracy of measurement.

Systematic errors can be minimized by

• improving experimental techniques
• selecting better instruments
• removing personal errors as far as possible.
2. Random Errors
• The random errors are the errors which occur irregularly due to unpredictable variations in experimental conditions.
• They are random with respect to sign and size, ie., sometimes, random error may be positive or negative.
• The random errors may arise due to random and unpredictable variations in experimental conditions
eg: temperature, pressure, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations etc.
• These may also be due to personal errors by the observer doing the experiment
• Random errors often follow the well known "Gaussian Law of Normal Distribution”
• The random errors can be minimized by repeating the observation a large number of times and taking the arithmetic mean of
all the observations.
3. Gross Errors
These errors arise on account of shear carelessness of the observer.
For example: (i)Reading an instrument without setting it properly
(ii)Taking the observations wrongly without caring for the sources of errors and the precautions.
(iii)Recording the observations wrongly
(iv) Using wrong values of the observations in the calculations.
These errors can be minimized only when the observer sincere and mentally alert.