1

Work and Energy

Work is done on an object that can exert a resisting force and is only accomplished
if that object will move. In particular,

we can describe work done by a specific object (where a force is applied) or
on a specific object (where an opposing force must be overcome)

we can also specify whether work done is due to one particular force or to the
total net force on the object.

work done is converted to other forms of energy.

Essentially, the amount of work accomplished can be determined two ways:

1) Work = force x distance, or W = Fd  units: Joules (J)

Note that work is done only when a force acts parallel to the motion of an object,
thereby affecting its motion. For any force that acts at an oblique angle to the
direction of motion, only the parallel component of that force can be used to
determine the work done.

Force F

θ Force
F

Distance d F//

Use component F// to find work: W = F//d

2) Work = a change in energy, or W = ∆E the work-energy theorem

this means that whenever one form of energy changes to another, work is done

Either method may be utilized to calculate work done, depending on the

information given in the problem. What follows are examples of the types of work
that can be done on an object.
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A: Work Done Against Gravity
When an object is lifted upward, work is done on a mass against the resisting force of
gravity. The energy used to do this is converted to gravitational potential energy, or Ep.
In fact, Ep increases as the mass is lifted higher and higher.

m  start with W = FAppd where FApp is the applied

A mass is lifted force.
a distance ∆h
against gravity.  assuming the mass was lifted at a constant ‘v’,

m then FNet = 0 and FApp = Fg

therefore, the work done against gravity is W = Fgd = mg∆h

since the newly stored potential energy is Ep = mgh,  W = ∆ Ep

This tells us that work done against gravity = potential energy gained by the mass.

Example #1. A 6.0 kg mass is raised from 1.5 m above the ground to 6.5 m high.
a) What work is done?
b) What Ep does the mass now have?

(see Work-Energy Ex 1 for answer)

Note: gravitational potential energy is a relative measurement which depends on what

elevation is chosen to be h = 0. Usually the ‘0’ location is chosen as the lowest
position that an object has the potential to fall.

B: Work done against the force of Friction

As long as an object moves along a horizontal surface with constant velocity, all
the work is done against friction. If acceleration occurs, then work is being done
against inertia as well (we will consider this later).

Consider the following diagram of an object moved from position #1 to position #2

at constant velocity.
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As with the gravity example, start with W = FAppd

at constant velocity, there is no acceleration, so FNet = 0

this means that FApp = Ff  W = Ffd

The work done against friction is changed to heat energy and lost to the system.

Example #2. A 150 kg object is pulled at constant velocity over a horizontal

µ = 0.12) for a distance of 7.0 m. How much heat energy was
surface (µ
generated?

(see Work-Energy Ex 2 for answer)

C: Work done against inertia (also called net work done)

When a force acts to accelerate an object over a distance, that object is no longer
“doing what it’s already doing”. In other words, work is done against inertia. This
work is stored as the energy of speed, called kinetic energy or Ek.

Consider the case of a ball upon which some unbalanced force acts. The ball is
accelerated from vi=0 to some final speed vf over a distance d.

Note that kinetic energy changes as the speed of the object changes. The work done
against inertia to accelerate the mass a distance d can be determined two ways:

1) W = FNetd 2) W = ∆ Ek
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To prove these two methods to find net work are the same:

start with FNet = ma  therefore W = mad

vf - vi vf + vi

from kinematics, we also know that a= and d=( )t
t 2

substituting into W = mad, we obtain

vf - vi vf + vi
W = m( )( )t  t cancels, leaving
t 2

1 2 2 1 2 1 2
W= m(vf - vi ) = mvf - mvi
2 2 2

1 2

and since Ek = mv , W = ∆ Ek
2

In other words, work is done against inertia to change kinetic energy. If a force is
exerted on a moving mass and its effect is to change the velocity of the mass, then
work has been done against inertia. This is the net or useful work done.

Example #3: A 60.0 kg lab cart is moving at 5.00 m/s, and is accelerated to
12.0 m/s. How much work was done to cause this?

(see Work-Energy Ex 3 for answer)

Example #4: A force of 100 N is applied on a 50 kg cart that is moving with a

speed of 6.0 m/s and has a force of friction of 20. N acting on it. At the end of
10. seconds, the cart is going 22 m/s.
a) How much work was done against inertia?
b) How much work was done in total?

(see Work-Energy Ex 4 for answer)

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Total Work Done
The work in moving any object can be done against more than one resisting
quantity. For example, when you accelerate a car up a steep hill, the car’s engine is
performing work against inertia, gravity and friction, all at the same time!

The total work done by the engine is

W = ∆Ek + ∆Ep + Ffd calculate each of these quantities separately,

then add them up.

However, keep in mind that when your engine applies a force to move the car up
the steep hill, this total work can also be determined by

W = FAppd where FApp is the force applied by the engine to

move the car up the hill.

This second calculation can be used if you know what overall force is applied on
an object, or can determine its value using vector analysis.

Work done when the force is not constant.

Because W = Fd and area A = l x w, work is the area under a force vs. distance
graph. If an applied force is not constant, simply graph the varying force vs.
distance and calculate the area; this gives total work done.

Example #5: A 5.0 kg cart is accelerated using a varying force. The force is a
constant 10 N for 5 m, then increases at a constant rate up to 20 N for another
10 m.
a) What is the total work done on the cart?
b) If the cart was going 24 m/s when this began, what is its speed now?

20

15
Force F
10
(N)
5

0
0 5 10 15
distance d (m)
(see Work-Energy Ex 5 for answer)
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Power
Power is the work done per unit time, or the rate of doing work on an object. As a
formula,

W ∆E
P= = where units are J/s, or watts (W)
t t

If work can be done against the forces of gravity, or inertia, or friction, then power
is required to do the work. For example:

power developed when doing work against gravity is given by:

W ∆E p mg∆
∆h
P= = =
t t t

power developed when doing work against inertia (i.e. accelerating) is given by:

W ∆E k 12 m(v 2f - v2i )
P= = =
t t t

power developed from work done against friction is given by:

W F f d µF N d
P= = =
t t t

if work is done on all of these forces at the same time, then the total work is
added together and divided by time:

∆h + 12 m(v 2f - v2i ) + µFN d

mg∆
P=
t

Example #6: A cart accelerates from 0 to 15 m/s in 60 sec. What power is

developed if the mass of the car is 20. kg?

(see Work-Energy Ex 6 for answer)

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Example #7: For the diagram below, if the cart goes from the bottom to the
top in 16 seconds, how much power was developed?

(see Work-Energy Ex 7 for answer)

Example #8: The cart below has an initial speed of 2.0 m/s and accelerates to
5.0 m/s by the time it is at the top of the ramp. How much power is
developed? Hint: to find time, use kinematics.

(see Work-Energy Ex 8 for answer)

Example #9: Here there is a 22°° slope. The cart starts from rest at the bottom
of the ramp and accelerates to 4.0 m/s by the time it reaches the top of the
ramp. With a coefficient of friction µ = 0.21, how much power was developed?

(see Work-Energy Ex 9 for answer)

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One last point: a shortcut can be utilized to find average power developed by a
moving vehicle of known velocity. To do so, examine the power equation carefully
and perform these steps:

P=  where W = Fd  P=

But recall from kinematics: d = vavt  vav ==

By substitution, a new equation is produced: P = Fvav

This equation shows that the power developed in any moving object is directly
proportional to the applied force that created it, as well as the average speed of the
object.

Example #10: A motor driven sled of mass 10.0 kg moves at a constant speed of
15 m/s over a horizontal surface of coefficient of friction µ = 0.12. What power
would the motor have to develop to cause this to happen?

(see Work-Energy Ex 10 for answer)

 1
Conservation of Energy Part 1
In previous grades, you learned the famous statement “energy is neither created nor
destroyed, only transferred from one form to another”. This really means that for
any given event, the total energy contained in a system is constant, regardless of
how different types of energy change during the event. This is similar to the
conservation of momentum theorem that was dealt with in the last section, except
that since energy is a scalar quantity, no vector diagrams are required!

However, unlike momentum (which has only one form and one equation), there are
many forms of energy in nature. In Physics 12 however, we are given only two
equations for two types of energy: Ep and Ek. This limits our ability to utilize the
conservation of energy theorem.

Essentially, we can only examine systems or events where gravitational and kinetic
energies are involved, as well as the heat energy produced when friction occurs.
Such systems include: falling objects, roller coasters/ramps, pendulums and slides.

To simplify things, in this section we will only examine conservation of energy

problems in situations where friction can be ignored.

Consider an object dropped from a height ‘h’ above the ground. When this mass falls
from rest and loses vertical height, the loss of gravitational potential energy (Ep) is
converted entirely to kinetic energy (Ek).

at rest, Ek = 0 ∴ Etotal = Ep = mgh

mass
falls
during the fall, Ep is converted to Ek

1

at impact, Ep = 0 ∴ Etotal = Ek = mvf2
2

 Since total energy remains the same from start to finish, in this example:
1
mgh = mvf2
2

Another way of looking at conservation of energy is to consider how energy is

gained or lost. In the above example:
1
∆Ep lost = ∆Ek gained
mg∆h = mvf2
2

Note that there is no initial speed vi in this situation.

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Example #11: A 35 kg mass falls 4.0 m to the ground.
a) How much kinetic energy does it have when it strikes the ground?
b) With what speed does it strike the ground?

(see Work-Energy Ex 11 for answer)

Now consider two identical balls: one dropped from a height ‘h’, the other rolling
from rest at the same height down a frictionless incline of length ‘d’.

It can be proven algebraically that with no friction, the final speed of each ball will
be the same!

 Using kinematics, vf2 = vi2 + 2ad
where vi = 0

 Therefore, vf =

 For the left ball, a = g and θ

h = dsinθ so vf =

 For the right ball, a = gsinθ

θ so once again, vf =

This means that, so long as there is no friction, the speed of an object travelling on any
path depends only on its change in height. Conservation of energy can be used to solve
for unknown values based on this knowledge.

Keep in mind though, these two points:

• We are only referring to speed, and not velocity, which is a vector quantity.
• If there is significant friction, this shortcut for finding speed will not work.

Example #12: In the diagram above, if the right ball has a mass of 5.2 kg and an
initial speed of 1.4 m/s at the top of the 2.8-m high ramp, what will its speed be at
the bottom of the ramp?
(see Work-Energy Ex 12 for answer)
 3
Here’s a slightly more complex problem: energy conservation on a roller coaster.
Once again, assume friction is negligible, as well as wind resistance, etc.

beginning position

vi

final position

H vf

Since the total energy is constant, and since friction is negligible,

the sum of Ep + Ek before = sum of Ep + Ek after

Example #13: If a cart of mass 10 kg and with an initial speed of 3.5 m/s rolls
down a 50 m high frictionless incline and then proceeds to roll up another
similar incline to a height of 20 m, what is the speed of the cart at this point?

(see Work-Energy Ex 13 for answer)

Finally, we’ll look at energy conservation in a frictionless pendulum.

At release, Ek = 0
∴ Etotal = Ep
Here, Etotal = Ek + Ep

H
h

At bottom, Ep = 0
∴ Etotal = Ek
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Note the following:
 Height is measured from the bottom of the pendulum’s swing.
 At any point, the sum of Ek + Ep = total energy.
 Since total energy is constant (cons. of energy):
Ep at highest point = Ek at lowest point
 The change in height ∆h of a pendulum can be determined if the pendulum’s
length ‘L’ is known as well as the angle θ (from vertical) to which it was
raised.

θ
L
Lcos θ
∆h = L - L cos θ

∆h = L(1 - cos θ)
∆h

Example #14: A pendulum bob of mass 5.0 kg falls through a height of 25 cm as it

swings from maximum height to lowest position.
a) How fast is it going at the bottom?
b) What is the energy of the bob at the bottom of the swing?
c) What is the speed of the bob as it swings up past the bottom of its arc
and rises 10 cm from the bottom position?
d) What is the total energy at this position?
e) What is the potential energy at this position?

(see Work-Energy Ex 14 for answer)

Finally, be clear on this: these frictionless systems do not exist, except at the sub-
atomic level. If they did, they would be described as perpetual motion systems that
would continue to move without any additional energy required.
 1
Conservation of Energy Part 2
Where friction exists (i.e. everywhere on earth), heat and other forms of energy are
produced, and must be considered when utilizing the conservation of energy theorem to
solve problems.

total energy before = total energy after

the sum of Ep + Ek before = the sum of Ep + Ek + Heat etc. after

Example #15: Consider the

diagram to the right showing vi = 2.6 m/s
a 60 kg student on a large slide.

a) In the absence of friction,

what would her speed be at
the bottom? 4.2 m
b) If her actual speed at the
bottom is 6.0 m/s, how much
heat was generated on the
section shown?

(see Work-Energy Ex 15 for answer)

Example #16: An object of mass 12 kg starts from rest and slides down a ramp that
has a vertical drop of 6.0 m. Heat generated as the object moves down the ramp is
310 J.
a) How fast will the object be going at the bottom of the ramp?
b) If the object then slides along a horizontal surface of µ = 0.25, how far will it
travel before coming to a rest?

6.0 m

(see Work-Energy Ex 16 for answer)

Note that the total energy of the object at the start of the run is mgh, equal to 706 J.
At the end of the run, the entire 706 J of energy has gone up in heat, lost to the
atmosphere.
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Efficiency
Because of heat generated (and essentially lost) due to friction, the energy left over
as Ek and/or Ep is described as useful energy. Efficiency is a way of comparing the
total energy a system started with to the useful energy retained or converted after
the event is finished:

Efficiency = useful energy transferred x 100%

energy put in

Example #17: Consider the slide from Example #15. Using the information from
part (b) only, what is the efficiency of this section of the slide?

(see Work-Energy Ex 17 for answer)

Example #18: In the following system, if H = 25 cm and h = 23 cm, what is the

efficiency?

A t p oin t A A t e n d p oin t of s w in g,
t ot a l e n e r gy is b a ll d oe s n ot r e a ch
E = m gH in it ia l h e igh t H (los e s ∆h )
A
Tot a l e n e r gy E = m gh
A B
B ∆h = H - h
H
h

(see Work-Energy Ex 18 for answer)

Example #19: Find the % efficiency of a long hit baseball of mass 200 g; the ball
leaves the bat at 18 m/s and is caught in the field (same height as when it was hit) at
a speed of 14 m/s.

(see Work-Energy Ex 19 for answer)

Remember that any frictionless system will always have an efficiency of 100%. In
essence, it is a perpetual motion machine which would never require any additional
energy to maintain its motion.
 3
Now consider the efficiency of a collision between two masses. In most cases,
when two (or more) moving objects collide, some of their kinetic energy is lost to
heat, sound, etc. as a result of the impact. Whatever kinetic energy exists after the
collision is less than the kinetic energy between the objects before the collision
took place.

In other words, kinetic energy is NOT conserved in most collisions. However,

there are a few exceptions to this rule – e.g., collisions between molecular and
nuclear particles, repelling magnetic objects, as well as very hard materials such as
ball bearings. Collisions of this type – where kinetic energy IS conserved – are
described as perfectly elastic.

Some points you need to remember from this:

 problems involving perfectly elastic collisions can be analyzed using either
conservation of energy or momentum. If the collision is not 100% elastic,
ONLY conservation of momentum can be used to solve for unknowns.
 if two equal masses in an oblique collision (as above) show a 90° angle after
the collision, that collision is perfectly elastic.

Example #20: A 2.0 kg ball collides at 10. m/s with a much larger stationary
8.5 kg ball as shown to the right. After the collision, the 2.0 kg ball changes its
speed to 7.6 m/s @ 40°° N of E.
a) At what speed ‘v’ does the 8.5 kg ball move after the collision?
b) What is the efficiency of this system?
7.6 m/s

10. m/s 40°°

N 2.0 kg
8.5 kg v

Before After

(see Work-Energy Ex 20 for answer)

The next and final problem nicely summarizes both aspects of conservation of
momentum and conservation of energy. It is described as a ballistic pendulum
problem.
 4
In a ballistic pendulum problem, a bullet or arrow is shot into a stationary soft
pendulum, which then swings upwards. The object is to find the speed of the bullet
or the height reached by the pendulum.

pendulum and bullet

Mp + mb at top of swing (v = 0)
vb
mb Mp ∆h
bullet
pendulum The swing upwards of
the pendulum and bullet
Bullet embeds into the conserves energy.
pendulum block; the
collision is not elastic.
Energy is not conserved,
but momentum is.

Use these steps (not necessarily in this order):

 Use conservation of momentum to deal with the collision between the bullet
and the pendulum, where:

total momentum of bullet before collision

= total momentum of block & bullet after collision

 Use conservation of energy to deal with the swing of the bullet and
pendulum after the collision, where:

total energy at bottom of swing (Ek) = total energy at top of swing (Ep)

Example #21: A 0.015 kg bullet is fired horizontally into a 3.0 kg block of wood
suspended by a long cord. The bullet sticks in the block. Compute the original
velocity of the bullet if the impact causes the block to swing 10 cm above its initial
level.

(see Work-Energy Ex 21 for answer)

Example #1. A 6.0 kg mass is raised from 1.5 m above the ground to 6.5 m high.
a) What work is done?
b) What Ep does the mass now have?
Example #2. A 150 kg object is pulled at constant velocity over a horizontal
surface (µ
µ = 0.12) for a distance of 7.0 m. How much heat energy was
generated?
Example #3: A 60.0 kg lab cart is moving at 5.00 m/s, and is accelerated to
12.0 m/s. How much work was done to cause this?
Example #4: A force of 100 N is applied on a 50 kg cart that is moving with a
speed of 6.0 m/s and has a force of friction of 20. N acting on it. At the end of
10. seconds, the cart is going 22 m/s.
a) How much work was done against inertia?
b) How much work was done in total?
Example #5: A 5.0 kg cart is accelerated using a varying force. The force is a
constant 10 N for 5 m, then increases at a constant rate up to 20 N for another
10 m.
a) What is the total work done on the cart?
b) If the cart was going 24 m/s when this began, what is its speed now?

20

15
Force F
10
(N)
5

0
0 5 10 15
distance d (m)
Example #6: A cart accelerates from 0 to 15 m/s in 60 sec. What power is
developed if the mass of the car is 20. kg?
Example #7: For the diagram below, if the cart goes from the bottom to the
top in 16 seconds, how much power was developed?
Example #8: The cart below has an initial speed of 2.0 m/s and accelerates to
5.0 m/s by the time it is at the top of the ramp. How much power is
developed? Hint: to find time, use kinematics.
Example #9: Here there is a 22°° slope. The cart starts from rest at the bottom
of the ramp and accelerates to 4.0 m/s by the time it reaches the top of the
ramp. With a coefficient of friction µ = 0.21, how much power was developed?
Example #10: A motor driven sled of mass 10.0 kg moves at a constant speed of
15 m/s over a horizontal surface of coefficient of friction µ = 0.12. What power
would the motor have to develop to cause this to happen?
Example #11: A 35 kg mass falls 4.0 m to the ground.
a) How much kinetic energy does it have when it strikes the ground?
b) With what speed does it strike the ground?
Example #12: In the diagram above, if the right ball has a mass of 5.2 kg and an
initial speed of 1.4 m/s at the top of the 2.8-m high ramp, what will its speed be at
the bottom of the ramp?
Example #13: If a cart of mass 10 kg and with an initial speed of 3.5 m/s rolls
down a 50 m high frictionless incline and then proceeds to roll up another
similar incline to a height of 20 m, what is the speed of the cart at this point?
Example #14: A pendulum bob of mass 5.0 kg falls through a height of 25 cm as it
swings from maximum height to lowest position.
a) How fast is it going at the bottom?
b) What is the energy of the bob at the bottom of the swing?
c) What is the speed of the bob as it swings up past the bottom of its arc
and rises 10 cm from the bottom position?
d) What is the total energy at this position?
e) What is the potential energy at this position?
Example #15: Consider the
diagram to the right showing vi = 2.6 m/s
a 60 kg student on a large slide.

a) In the absence of friction,

what would her speed be at
the bottom? 4.2 m
b) If her actual speed at the
bottom is 6.0 m/s, how much
heat was generated on the
section shown?
Example #16: An object of mass 12 kg starts from rest and slides down a ramp that
has a vertical drop of 6.0 m. Heat generated as the object moves down the ramp is
310 J.
a) How fast will the object be going at the bottom of the ramp?
b) If the object then slides along a horizontal surface of µ = 0.25, how far will it
travel before coming to a rest?

6.0 m
Example #17: Consider the slide from Example #15. Using the information from
part (b) only, what is the efficiency of this section of the slide?
Example #18: In the following system, if H = 25 cm and h = 23 cm, what is the
efficiency?

A t p oin t A A t e n d p oin t of s w in g,
t ot a l e n e r gy is b a ll d oe s n ot r e a ch
E = m gH in it ia l h e igh t H (los e s ∆h )
A
Tot a l e n e r gy E = m gh
A B
B ∆h = H - h
H
h
Example #19: Find the % efficiency of a long hit baseball of mass 200 g; the ball
leaves the bat at 18 m/s and is caught in the field (same height as when it was hit) at
a speed of 14 m/s.
Example #20: A 2.0 kg ball collides at 10. m/s with a much larger stationary
8.5 kg ball as shown to the right. After the collision, the 2.0 kg ball changes its
speed to 7.6 m/s @ 40°° N of E.
a) At what speed ‘v’ does the 8.5 kg ball move after the collision?
b) What is the efficiency of this system?
7.6 m/s

10. m/s 40°°

N 2.0 kg
8.5 kg v

Before After
Example #21: A 0.015 kg bullet is fired horizontally into a 3.0 kg block of wood
suspended by a long cord. The bullet sticks in the block. Compute the original
velocity of the bullet if the impact causes the block to swing 10 cm above its initial
level.