In this lecture we will find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

3 × 3 matrices.
Example. An example of three distinct eigenvalues.
 
4 0 1
A =  −1 −6 −2  .
5 0 0

Solution: Recall,

Steps to find eigenvalues and eigenvectors:

1. Form the characteristic equation

det(λI − A) = 0.

2. To find all the eigenvalues of A, solve the characteristic equation.

3. For each eigenvalue λ, to find the corresponding set of eigenvectors,

solve the linear system of equations

(λI − A)~x = 0

Step 1. Form the Characteristic Equation.

The characteristic equation is:

det (λI − A) = 0
λ−4 0 −1
1 λ+6 2 =0
−5 0 λ
(λ − 4)((λ + 6)(λ) − 0) − 1(0 − (−5)(λ + 6)) = 0
λ3 + 2λ2 − 29λ − 30 = 0

Step 2. Find the eigenvalues.

We need to solve the characteristic equation. i.e. we need to factorize
the characteristic polynomial. We can factorize it by either using long
division or by directly trying to spot a common factor.
Method 1: Long Division.
We want to factorize this cubic polynomial. In general it is quite dif-
ficult to guess what the factors may be. We try λ = ±1, ±2, ±3, etc.
and hope to quickly find one factor. Let us try λ = −1. We divide the
polynomial λ3 + 2λ2 − 29λ − 30 by λ + 1, to get,

λ2 +λ −30
λ + 1 |λ +2λ2 −29λ −30;
3

−λ3 +λ2
λ2 −29λ −30
− λ2 +λ
−30λ −30
− −30λ −30
0
The quotient is λ2 + λ − 30.
The remainder is 0.
Therefore λ3 + 2λ2 − 29λ − 30 = (λ + 1)(λ2 + λ − 30) + 0.

λ3 + 2λ2 − 29λ − 30 = 0
(λ + 1)(λ2 + λ − 30) = 0
(λ + 1)(λ + 6)(λ − 5) = 0

Therefore the eigenvalues are: {−1, −6, 5}.

Method 2: Direct factorization by spotting common factor.

λ−4 0 0
1 λ+6 2 = 0
−5 0 λ
(λ − 4)((λ + 6)(λ) − 0) − 1(0 − (−5)(λ + 6)) = 0
(λ − 4)((λ + 6)(λ)) − 5(λ + 6) = 0
(λ + 6)(λ(λ − 4) − 5) = 0
(λ + 6)(λ2 − 4λ − 5) = 0
(λ + 6)(λ − 5)(λ + 1) = 0

Therefore the eigenvalues of A are: λ1 = −1, λ2 = −6 and λ3 = 5.

Step 3. Find Eigenvectors corresponding to each Eigenvalue:
We now need to find eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue.

case(i) λ1 = −1.
The eigenvectors are the solution space of the following system:
    
−5 0 −1 x1 0
 1 5 2   x2  =  0 
−5 0 −1 x3 0
−1
−5x1 − x3 = 0; x1 = x3
5
−9
x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 = 0; x2 = x3
25
The set of eigenvectors corresponding to λ1 = −1 is,
 
x1
−1 −9
{  x2  |x1 = x 3 , x2 = x3 }
5 25
x3
 −1 
x
5 3
−9
{  x  |x3 is a non-zero real number}
25 3
x3
 −1 
5
−9
{ x3  25
 |x3 is a nn-zero real number}
1

−1
 
5
−9
An eigenvector corresponding to λ1 = −1 is  25
.
1
case(ii) λ2 = −6.
The eigenvectors are the solution space of the following system:
    
−10 0 −1 x1 0
 1 0 2   x2  =  0 
−5 0 −6 x3 0
−10x1 − x3 = 0; x3 = −10x1
x1 + 2x3 = 0; x1 = −2x3 = −2(−10)x1
x1 = 0 = x3
 The set of eigenvectors corresponding to λ2 = −6 is,
 
x1
{  x2  |x1 = x3 = 0}
x3
 
0
{  x2  |x2 is a non-zero real number}
0
 
0
{ x2  1  |x2 is a non-zero real number}
0
 
0
An eigenvector corresponding to λ2 = −6 is  1 .
0
case(iii) λ3 = 5.
The eigenvectors are the solution space of the following system:
    
1 0 −1 x1 0
 1 11 2   x2  =  0 
−5 0 5 x3 0
x1 = x3
−3
x2 = x3
11
The set of eigenvectors corresponding to λ3 = 5 is,
 
x1
−3
{  x2  |x1 = x3 , x2 = x3 }
11
x3
 
x3
{  −3 x  |x3 is a non-zero real number}
11 3
x3
 
1
{ x3  −3 11
 |x3 is a non-zero real number}
1
 
1
An eigenvector corresponding to λ3 = 5 is  −3 11
.
1
 Example. An example of repeated eigenvalue having only two eigenvectors.
 
0 1 1
A =  1 0 1 .
1 1 0

Solution: Recall,

Steps to find eigenvalues and eigenvectors:

1. Form the characteristic equation

det(λI − A) = 0.

2. To find all the eigenvalues of A, solve the characteristic equation.

3. For each eigenvalue λ, to find the corresponding set of eigenvectors,

solve the linear system of equations

(λI − A)~x = 0

Step 1. Form the Characteristic Equation.

The characteristic equation is:

λ −1 −1
−1 λ −1 = 0
−1 −1 λ
λ(λ2 − (−1)(−1)) − (−1)((−1)λ − (−1)(−1)) − 1((−1)λ − (−1)(−1)) = 0
λ3 − 3λ2 − 2 = 0

Step 2. Find the eigenvalues.

We need to solve the characteristic equation. i.e. we need to factorize
the characteristic polynomial. We can factorize it by either using long
division or by directly trying to spot a common factor.
Method 1: Long Division.
We want to factorize this cubic polynomial. In general it is quite dif-
ficult to guess what the factors may be. We try λ = ±1, ±2, ±3, etc.
and hope to quickly find one factor. Let us try λ = −1. We divide the
polynomial λ3 + 2λ2 − 29λ − 30 by λ + 1, to get,

λ2 −λ −2
3
λ + 1 |λ −3λ −2;
−λ3 +λ2
−λ2 −3λ −2
− −λ2 −λ
−2λ −2
− −2λ −2
0
The quotient is λ2 − λ − 2.
The remainder is 0.
Therefore λ3 − 3λ − 2 = (λ + 1)(λ2 − λ − 2) + 0.

λ3 − 3λ − 2 = 0
(λ + 1)(λ2 − λ − 2) = 0
(λ + 1)(λ + 1)(λ − 2) = 0

Therefore the eigenvalues are: {−1, 2}.

Method 2: Direct factorization by spotting common factor.

λ −1 −1
−1 λ −1 = 0
−1 −1 λ
λ(λ2 − (−1)(−1)) − (−1)((−1)λ − (−1)(−1)) − 1((−1)λ − (−1)(−1)) = 0
λ(λ2 − 1) + 1(−λ − 1) − 1(1 + λ) = 0
λ(λ − 1)(λ + 1) − 1(λ + 1) − 1(1 + λ) = 0
(λ + 1)(λ(λ − 1) − 1 − 1) = 0
(λ + 1)(λ2 − λ − 2) = 0
(λ + 1)2 (λ − 2) = 0

Therefore the eigenvalues of A are: {−1, 2}.