LECTURE - 1

INTRODUCTION

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 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

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 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

➢Atomic structure is the structure of an atom that consists of a

➢Nucleus at the center containing neutrons and protons,

➢Electrons are revolving around the nucleus.

➢As atoms are made up of a very tiny, positively charged nucleus that is surrounded by
a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

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 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

➢The earliest concept of atoms was given by Indian philosopher Maharshi Kanad who
proposed that matter is made up of very small indestructible particles called ‘Parmanu’.

➢A Greek philosopher named Democritus also initially claimed that matter is formed of
atoms, and is credited with developing the concepts of atomic structure and quantum
mechanics.

➢Later in the 1800s, John Dalton a British Scientist put out the first atomic structure
scientific theory.

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 ATOMIC MODELS

➢Many scientists used atomic models to understand the structure of the atom in the
early centuries.

➢Each of these models had advantages and disadvantages of its own and played a
significant role in the development of the modern atomic model.

➢Scientists like John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and Niels Bohr made the
most noteworthy contributions to science.

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 TYPES OF THEORIES REGARDING ATOMIC STRUCTURE

➢Dalton’s Atomic Theory

➢Thomson’s Atomic Model

➢Rutherford’s Atomic Model

➢Bohr’s Atomic Model

➢Quantum Mechanical Model

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 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

➢John Dalton, a British Chemist proposed that every matter is made up of atoms.
These atoms are indivisible and indestructible i.e. they can’t be broken down into
smaller particles.

➢He also suggested that all atoms of a particular matter are the same, but atoms
of different elements differ in size and mass.

➢This means atoms of each element are unique.

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 THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL

➢Sir Joseph John Thomson was also an English chemist famous for his discovery of
electrons known as Thomson’s Atomic Model, for which he also got the Nobel
Prize.

➢He conducted a cathode ray experiment to invent electrons.

➢He proposed that atoms are like a sphere of positive charge with negative
charge embedded in them.

➢He named this atomic model as Plum Pudding Model.

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 RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL

➢Rutherford who was a student of J. J. Thomson discovered Nucleus which

contained protons and neutrons inside it.

➢This discovery made huge changes to the atomic structure.

➢The observations made by Thomson in his experiment were used by Rutherford to

propose his theory for atomic structure through an experiment called Rutherford’s
Alpha Ray Scattering Experiment.

➢Rutherford used the radioactivity phenomenon in conducting his experiment.

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 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

➢Neils Bohr, a student of Rutherford proposed his model in 1915 to address the limitation of
Rutherford’s Atomic Model. It is the most widely used atomic model and is based on Planck’s
theory of quantization.

➢It explains that electrons always move in fixed orbitals only, and they are not present
everywhere in the atom.

➢Bohr explained that each orbit has a fixed energy level. An orbit is also called an Energy
Shell.

➢Bohr made changes to Rutherford’s model and added electrons and energy levels.
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 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

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 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

➢As per Bohr’s model, inside an atom, there is a small nucleus that is positively charged
and is surrounded by negative electrons which move around in orbits which has specific
energy level.

➢To revolve in a particular orbit, electrons must possess energy equal to the energy level
of the shell.

➢Bohr found out that the larger the distance of an electron from the nucleus, the larger its
energy which means the orbits near the nucleus has smaller energy and the shell
farthest from the nucleus has larger energy.

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 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

➢Quantum Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the motion and
kinematics of microscopic objects.

➢Since atoms are of below microscopic size and the limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model
motivated the scientists to give a more general and accurate atomic model based on
Quantum Theory.

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 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

The subatomic particles are the particles that are present inside the atom, There are
three subatomic particles that are,

➢Protons

➢Neutrons

➢Electrons

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 PROTONS

➢Protons have a positive charge.

➢This charge is 1e, which is approximately 1.602 × 10-19

➢Mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-24

➢Protons are over 1800 times heavier than electrons.

➢Total number of protons in the atoms of an element and the atomic number of
the element is always equal.

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 NEUTRONS

➢Mass of a neutron is almost similar to that of a proton i.e. 1.674 × 10-24

➢Neutrons are always electrically neutral particles and do not carry any charge.

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 ELECTRONS

➢Charge of an electron is -1e, which is approximately -1.602 × 10-19

➢Mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31.

➢Mass of an electron is almost negligible as compared to the mass of an atom, so an

electron’s mass is ignored while calculating the mass of an atom.

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 LECTURE - 2

Overview of Semiconductor
Devices
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 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

➢Semiconductor devices are electronic devices with conductivity between a good

conductor and an insulator.

➢It uses the special electrical characteristics of semiconductor materials to accomplish

specific functions such as generate, control, receive, transform, and amplify
signals, and convert energy.

➢In simple words, Semiconductor devices are a type of electronic components that
designed, developed and manufactured based on the Semiconductor materials like
Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).

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 HISTORY OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

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 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES –TWO TERMINALS

➢Rectifier Diode(PN junction diode) ➢LED (light-emitting diode)

➢Laser diode ➢Phototransistor

➢Zener diode ➢Photocell

➢Schottky diode ➢Solar cell

➢PIN Diode

➢Tunnel diode

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 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.Three terminals ➢Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)

➢Unijunction transistor (UJT) ➢Darlington transistor

➢Bipolar transistor 3. Four terminals

➢Field-effect transistor(FET) ➢Optocoupler

➢Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) ➢Hall effect sensor

➢Thyristor

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 ELECTRONIC MATERIALS

➢ The goal of electronic materials is to generate and control the flow of an

electrical current.
➢ Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows electrical current flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses electrical current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical current flow

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 CONDUCTORS

➢Good conductors have low resistance so electrons flow through them with ease.

➢Best element conductors include:

➢Copper, silver, gold, aluminium, & nickel

➢Alloys are also good conductors:

➢Brass & steel

➢Good conductors can also be liquid:

➢Salt water

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 INSULATORS

➢Insulators have a high resistance so current does not flow in them.

➢Good insulators include:

➢Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood

➢The atoms are tightly bound to one another so electrons are difficult to strip away for
current flow.

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 SEMICONDUCTORS

➢Semiconductors are materials that essentially can be conditioned to act as good

conductors, or good insulators, or any thing in between.

➢Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and germanium are semiconductors.

➢Silicon is the best and most widely used semiconductor.

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 VALENCE ELECTRONS

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 CONDUCTOR ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The atomic structure of good conductors usually

includes only one electron in their outer shell.
* It is called a valence electron.
* It is easily striped from the atom,
producing current flow.

Copper Atom
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 SEMICONDUCTOR VALENCE ORBIT

The main characteristic of a

semiconductor element is that it has four
electrons in its outer or valence orbit.

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 ENERGY BANDS

➢The range of energies possessed by an electron in a solid is known as energy band.

➢The types of energy bands are valence band, Conduction band and energy band
gap.

Valence Band:

➢The energy band occupied by the valence electrons are called valence band.

➢It may be completely filled or partially filled with electrons but can never be empty.

➢The lowest completely filled band is called the valence band.

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 BANDS IN ENERGY DIAGRAM

Conduction Band:

➢The electrons which have left from the valence band are called conduction electrons.

➢The energy band occupied by these conduction electrons are called conduction band.

➢It may be empty or partially filled with electrons but can never be completely filled.

➢The lowest partially filled band is called conduction band.

Forbidden Energy gap: The valence band and the conduction band are separated
by a gap is known as forbidden energy gap.

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 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF MATERIALS

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 CONDUCTORS

➢There is no forbidden energy gap between valence & conduction band. Overlapping
takes place.

➢ In conduction band it has large number of electrons for producing current.

➢And also the electrons can easily move from valence band to conduction band.

➢In conductor the total current is only due to electrons.

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 INSULATORS

➢In case of insulator, the forbidden energy band is very wide.

➢In insulator, the valence electrons are bound very tightly to their parent atoms.

➢For example, in the case of material like glass, the valence band completely full at 0K and the
energy gap between valence band and conduction band is of the order of 10eV.

➢ Even in the presence of high electric field, the electrons cannot jump from the valence band to
conduction band.

➢When a very large energy is supplied, an electron may jump across the forbidden gap. Increase
in temperature also enables some electrons to go to the conduction band.
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 SEMICONDUCTORS
➢In semiconductors, the forbidden gap is very small. (Ex: Germanium and Silicon)

➢In Germanium, the forbidden gap is of the order of 0.7 eV while in case of silicon, it is 1.1
eV.

➢The electrical properties of semiconductor lies between those of insulators and

conductors.

➢At 0K (kelvin) there are no free electrons in conduction band and valence band is
completely filled.

➢When a small amount of energy is supplied, the electrons can easily move from valence
band to conduction band.
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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND
SEMICONDUCTORS

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 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

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 MATERIALS HAVING SEMICONDUCTOR PROPERTY

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 PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR

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 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors are mainly two types

➢1. Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors

➢2. Extrinsic (Impure) Semiconductors

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 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

➢A Semiconductor which does not have any kind of impurities behaves as an Insulator
at 0k (kelvin) and behaves as a Conductor at higher temperature is known as Intrinsic
Semiconductor or Pure Semiconductor.

➢Ex: Germanium & Silicon

➢Number of free electrons is always equal to the number of holes.

➢When an external field is applied across the intrinsic semiconductor the conduction
through the semiconductor is by both free electrons and holes.

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 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

➢A semiconductor which is in an impure form (with doping) is called an extrinsic

semiconductor.

➢Adding a suitable impurity to pure semiconductor is known as doping.

➢Extrinsic semiconductors are further divided into two types

1. P-type semiconductors

2. N-type semiconductor

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 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

➢P- type semiconductors:

➢Adding the trivalent impurity to pure semiconductor (like Al, Ga, In etc) then it becomes
P-type semiconductor.

➢In P-type semiconductors majority charge carriers are holes.

➢N- type semiconductors:

➢Adding the penta-valent impurity to pure semiconductor (like P, As, Sb etc) then it
becomes N-type semiconductor.

➢In N-type semiconductors majority charge carriers are electrons.

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 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

• The n-type is created by introducing the impurity elements that have

five valence electrons (Pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and
phosphorus.
• Inserted impurity atom has donated a free electron to the structure.
• Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor
atoms.
• In an n-type material , electron is called the majority carrier and hole
is the minority carrier. Fig. 1 Antimony impurity n-type material.

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 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

➢ Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.

➢ In an n-type material , electrons - majority carrier , hole - minority carrier

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 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

➢ The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or

silicon crystal with impurity atoms having three valence
electrons. The elements most frequently used for this purpose are
boron, gallium, and indium.
➢ The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called
acceptor atoms.

➢ In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the

electron is the minority carrier.
Boron impurity in P type material.
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 The PN Junction
Steady State
Metallurgical Junction
Na Nd

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ When no external source is
P -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
n connected to the pn junction,
diffusion and drift balance each
Space Charge other out for both the holes and
ionized Region ionized
acceptors donors electrons
E-Field
_ _
+ +
h+ drift == h+ diffusion e- diffusion == e- drift

Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes the net
positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region does not have any free
carriers. The width of the space charge region is denoted by W in pn junction formula’s.

Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.

Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of carriers per
centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.

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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
The PN junction diode is formed by joining n- and p-type materials together
Diode symbol

Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across its
terminals leaves three possibilities:
➢ No bias (VD = 0 V),
➢ Forward bias ,
➢ Reverse bias .
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 NO BIAS (VD = 0 V)
In pn-junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the junction into the
p region where they combine with holes near the junction. The result is that n region loses free electrons as they diffuse
into the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent or Donor ions) near the junction.

As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine. The result is that
there is a layer of negative charges (trivalent or acceptor ions) near the junction.

These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region or depletion layer. The term depletion is due
to the fact that near the junction, the region is depleted of charge carries (free electrons and holes) due to diffusion
across the junction.

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NO BIAS (VD = 0 V),

➢ There exists a potential difference across the depletion layer and is called barrier potential (V0).
➢ The barrier potential of a pn junction depends upon the type of semiconductor material used.
➢ barrier potential :
For silicon, V0 = 0.7 V ;
For germanium, V0 = 0.3 V

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