8.

STRESS CONCENTRATION &

FRACTURE MECHANICS
PART I STRESS CONCENTRATION

8.1 Introduction
Previous assumption:
The distribution of stress on any section of a member
can be expressed as a simple form.
e.g., uniform stress distribution for axial load;
linear stress distribution for bending.

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

However, in practice, due to

1) abrupt geometric change in section, e.g. notch, hole;
2) contact stress, e.g., ball bearing, gear teeth, wheel on rail;
3) discontinuity in materials, e.g. reinforcement, voids,
and aggregates in concrete, fibers in wood;
4) initial stress from cold working, heat treatment of metals;

5) crack from fabrication.

The conditions that cause the stresses to be greater than those

given by the ordinary stress equations of mechanics of materials
are called stress raisers.
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Saint-Venant's Principle
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STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Stress raiser stress concentration

(localized phenomenon)

Method: Analytical --- elasticity (solving diff. eqn. for simple cases)
Numerical --- FEM (to obtained approx. soln.)
Experimental --- photoelastic, elastic strain (strain gauge)

Generally, powerful mathematical methods are required to

describe stress concentrations. Only general concepts and basic
techniques of stress concentration calculation will be presented
herein. Specialized works should be referred to if needed.

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Stress concentration at
various notches

Using transparent
material, e.g.
Acrylic resin

Contact stress Stress concentration around a hole

Also view a video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDZ5yISiADM 6
 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Stress Concentration Factor (SCF)

σ max
Sc =
σn
σ max : maximum stress
σ n : average stress (e.g. σ n = P / A )
σc
Elasticity or experiment calculated SCF: Scc =
(e.g. formula/Acrylic) σn

Effective SCF (from test of use condition): S = σ e

(e.g. metal in use)
ce
σn

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.2 SCF based on theory of elasticity

8.2.1 Circular hole for plane stress

Boresi, A.P., Chong, K.P., Lee J.D.

(2011). Elasticity in Engineering
Mechanics. Elservier, New York.

In polar coordinate system (r ,θ ) ,

stress components can be expressed as

Infinite plate with

a small circular hole
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

 σ  a 2  σ  a 2  3a 2 
σ rr = 1 − 2  + 1 − 2 1 − 2  cos 2θ radial stress
 2  r  2  r  r 
 σ  a 2  σ  3a 4 
σ θθ = 1 + 2  − 1 + 4  cos 2θ circumferential stress
 2 r  2 r 
 σ  a 2  3a 2 
σ rθ = − 1 − 2 1 + 2  sin 2θ shear stress
 2  r  r 

They satisfy the following B.C.

r = a : σ rr = σ rθ = 0
r = ∞, θ = 0, π : σ xx = σ rr = σ , σ xy = σ rθ = 0
π 3π
r = ∞, θ = , : σ yy = σ rr = 0, σ xy = σ rθ = 0
2 2
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

For r = a, σ θθ = σ (1 − 2 cos 2θ )
3σ
(σ θθ )max = 3σ ⇒ Scc = =3
A σ
 π 3π 
 r = 2a θ = , : σ θθ = 1 . 5σ 
2 2

When 2a is comparable with the

width of the plate
Localized σ max 3k − 1
S cc = = (approximation)
phenomenon σn k + 0.3
width of plate
What about k=
stress at A? diameter of hole
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.2.2 Elliptic hole

Case 1, a > b Major
semi-axis

Minor
semi-axis

Infinite plate with a small elliptic hole

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Using elliptic coordinate (α , β ) , equation of ellipse

x2 y2
+ = c 2

cosh 2 α sinh 2 α

At hole,
a = c cosh α 0 , b = c sinh α 0
can be used to solve for
c and α 0
Hyperbolic functions:

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

α 0 → 0 : b → 0, c = a crack of length 2a
solution can be used to study the stress at crack.

Stress distribution (Inglis, Savin, Timoshenko)

σ αα + σ ββ = σe 2α 0 ( )
 1 + e −2α 0 sinh 2α 
− 1

 cosh 2α − cos 2 β 
Inglis C.E. (1913), Stresses in the plate due to the presence of cracks and sharp
corners. Trans. Inst. Naval Arch., 60:219
Savin G.N. (1961). Stress Concentrations Around Holes. New York, Pergamon
Press.
Timoshenko S.P. and Goodier J.N. (1970). Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., New
York, McGraw-Hill.

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

At hole, α = α 0 , σ αα = 0

σ ββ α =α 2α 0
= σe 
(1 + e )
−2α 0
sinh 2α 0 
− 1
0
 cosh 2α 0 − cos 2 β 
When β = 0, π , cos 2 β = 1 → σ ββ = max
(at the ends of major axis)

(σ )
ββ max
 2a 
= σ (1 + 2 coth α 0 ) = σ 1 + 
 b 
 b
 tanh α 0 = 
 a

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Expressed in terms of radius of curvature of ellipse at the end of

the major axis
 a
b2
ρ= , (σ )
ββ max = σ 1 + 2 
a  ρ

For crack, b → 0, (σ )ββ max →∞

π 3π
When β = , (at the ends of minor axis)
2 2

(σ )
ββ min = −σ

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Case 2, a < b 1 + sinh 2α 0 − e 2α 0 cos 2 β 

σ ββ α =α =σ 
0
 cos 2α 0 − cos 2 β 
 2b 
(σ )
ββ max = σ 1 + 
 a 
at the ends of minor axis
(σ )
ββ min = −σ
at the ends of major axis
When b=0, crack,
σ ββ = σ
no influence

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.2.3 Grooves & Holes

Shallow groove:
t
t Scs = 1 + 2
ρ
Deep groove:
b  b
2  + 1
Scd = ρ  ρ
b  −1 b b
 + 1 tan +
ρ  ρ ρ
Approximation:

Scc = 1 +
(Scs − 1)(Scd − 1)
(Scs − 1)2 + (Scd − 1)2
Neuber, H. (1958), Kerbspannungslehre, Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Neuber’s Diagram

b t
Assume ρ=6.35mm, t=38mm, b=241mm; = 6.16, = 2.45
ρ ρ
Bending: curve 2, f=2
⇒ S cc = 4.25 18
 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.2.4 Complex loading (superposition)

σ1 σ1

σ2 σ2

Elliptic or circular hole

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Case 1

σ 2σ sin 2α
σ αα + σ ββ =
cosh 2α − cos 2 β

At hole: α = α 0 , σ αα = 0
b
a σ
2σ sin 2α 0
σ ββ =
α =α 0 cosh 2α 0 − cos 2 β

a
⇒ (σ ββ )max = 2σ  
b

For a = b : S cc = 2
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Case 2
τ
σ =τ

450
b
a τ ≡ b a

σ = −τ

2τe 2α 0 sin 2 β dσ ββ b
σ ββ α =α =− = 0 : tan β = − tanh α 0 = −
0 cosh 2α 0 − cos 2 β dβ a

⇒ (σ ββ )max = τ (a + b)
2
a = b : Scc = 4
ab 21
 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Case 3

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Coordinate transformation of stress:

σ + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2
σI = 1 + cos 2θ
2 2
σ1 + σ 2 σ1 − σ 2
σ II = + cos 2θ
2 2
σ −σ 2
τ I,II = 1 sin 2θ
2
1
σ ββ = ×
α =α 0 cosh 2α 0 − cos 2 β
( )
 (σ 1 + σ 2 )sinh 2α 0 + (σ 1 − σ 2 ) e 2α 0 cos 2 β − 1 cos 2θ 
 
 − (σ − σ )e 2α 0 sin 2 β sin 2θ 
 1 2 
dσ ββ
=0 ⇒ (σ )
ββ max,min
dβ 23
 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Results:
θ = 0, β = 0 : (σ ββ )max = σ 1 1 + 2  − σ 2
 a
 b
π
θ = , β = 0 : (σ ββ )max = −σ 1 + σ 2 1 + 2 
 a
2  b
π
θ = 0, β = : (σ ββ )min = −σ 1 + σ 2 1 + 2 
 b
2  a
π π
θ = , β = : (σ ββ )max = σ 1 1 + 2  − σ 2
 b
2 2  a

σ ββ =−
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2
(1 + coth 2α 0 )
π 2(σ 1 + σ 2 )
0 <θ <
1
:
2 3(σ 1 − σ 2 )
2
σ ββ = (1 + coth 2α 0 )
2
2(σ 1 + σ 2 )
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.2.5 Experimental techniques

Photoelastic method
Agrees well with the previous analysis
Frocht (1936) - Photoelasticity
Coker & Filon (1957) - A Treatise on Photoelasticity
Strain gauge method
Peterson & Wahl (1936)

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

SCF curves obtained by photoelastic method

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

PART II FRACTURE MECHANICS

(Linear elastic fracture)

8.3 Basic concepts of fracture mechanics (Griffith)

Excessive deformation

Stiffness
Buckling
Failure
Yield Ductile materials
Strength

Fracutre Brittle materials

Crack initiation
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Crack propagation/extension
 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Three basic modes of crack movement

Mode I Mode II Mode III

(Opening) (Sliding) (Tearing) 28
 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Mode I domains. Much less frequency of Mode II & Mode III

in practice.

Elastic stress analysis of cracks leads to the concept of stress

intensity factor.

Stress intensity factor KI, KII, KIII , to describe the stress field
surrounding the crack tips.
our attention

N
Unit of K: stress ⋅ length 2
m
m
( K is proportional to average stress and root of
crack length)
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.4 Experimental Method for K IC

K IC --- fracture toughness/critical stress intensity factor

ASTM (American Society of Testing & Materials)

recommendation:

When KI=KIC, initiation of crack propagation

KI for various cracks shown the following table. 30
STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.5 Stationary crack

Stress concentration for elliptic hole

b→0
r

b2 a
ρ = →0 Scc = 1 + 2 →∞
a ρ
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Inglis (1913) solutions for normal stress near elliptic hole

σ xx = F1 (s ) − F2 (s )
σ yy = F1 (s ) + F2 (s )

where
σ 2(1 + m ) 
F1 (s ) = 1 + 2
2 s − m 
σ  m 2 − 1  (m − 1) 3s 2 − m  
F2 (s ) = 1 + 2 1 + 2 ⋅ 2 
2  s − m  s − m s − m 
2
x  x 
s= +   −m
2B  2B 
a+b a −b
B= , m=
2 a+b 33
 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Blunt crack ρ << a ρ ≠ 0

when x = a, r << a (near crack tip), let r = x − a

 ρ  1+ ρ ρ 2r + ρ

2 B = a 1 + , m = a , s =1− +
a 
1+ ρ
 a a
a
3
1 −
 2r + ρ 
−
ρ  2r + ρ 
F2 (s ) = F2 (r ) ≈ σ 
2
F1 (s ) = F1 (r ) ≈ σ 
2
 
 a  a a 
3
−
a  ρ  ρ 2
σ yy = σ 1 + 1 + 
2r  r  2r 
at the tip: r → 0, σ yy = 2σ a / ρ max. stress
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Sharp crack
b→0
2
x  x
2 B = a, m = 1, s = +   − 1
a a
σ
F1 (s ) = F1 (r ) ≈ σ F2 (s ) = F2 (r ) ≈
a
2r 2
K I = σ yy 2πr = σ πa
a
σ yy =σ
2r

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

8.6 Westerguard Method

σ Plane Stress
Plane elasticity
Plane Strain
y
σ Using Airy stress function U
x representation, plane elasticity problem
a a
is reduced to:
∂ 4
U ∂ 4
U ∂ 4
U
∇ ∇ U = 4 +2 2 2 + 4 =0
2 2
(*)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
plus B.C.

∂ 2U ∂ 2U ∂ 2U
Stress components σ xx = 2 , σ yy = 2 , τ xy = −
∂y ∂x ∂x∂y
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

σ z
Let Z = , U = Re(Z ) + y Im(Z ) satisfies Eq. (*)
(z )
1
2
−a 2 2

 dZ 
σ xx = Re(Z ) − y Im 
 dz 
 dZ 
σ yy = Re(Z ) + y Im 
 dz 
 dZ 
τ xy = − y Re 
 dz 
B.C.: (1) y = 0, − a < x < a : σ yy = τ xy = 0

(2) r = x 2 + y 2 → ∞ : σ xx = σ yy = σ , τ xy = 0
satisfied
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

σ
Set the origin at the tip of the crack
r θ
Coordinate transformation σ
a a
ζ = z−a

σ (ζ + a ) σ (ζ + a )  1 ζ 1 3 ζ  
2

Z= ≈ 1 
1− +   − 
[ζ (ζ + 2a )] 21
(2aζ ) 2  2 2a 2 4  2a  

σa σ a σ πa KI
When ζ → 0 Z= = = =
2aζ 2ζ 2πζ 2πζ
where K I = σ πa
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

KI θ θ 3θ 
σ xx = cos 1 − sin sin 
2πr 2 2 2 
KI θ θ 3θ 
Using ζ = reiθ σ yy = cos 1 + sin sin 
2πr 2 2 2 
KI θ θ 3θ rθ
τ xy = cos sin cos
2πr 2 2 2
a a
Displacement v = s + 1 σ a 2 − x 2 , −a ≤ x ≤ a
4G y
where s = 3 − 4ν for plane strain
x
3 −ν a a
s= for plane stress
1 +ν
E
G=
2(1 +ν )
lame coefficient
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

σ σ

kσ
≡ σ
+ (k − 1)σ

σ xx = (k − 1)σ
σ yy = 0
τ xy = 0
kσ kσ

σ ≡ kσ + (1 − k )σ

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Example
Closed cylindrical vessel subject to internal pressure. Find
stress components at point A, circumferential displacement
at the center of the crack.

A pr
a 2t

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

State of stress
σ1 σ1

σ2 ≡ σ1 + σ 2 − σ1

(1) (2)

Pd Pd
σ1 = σ2 = σ1 > σ 2
2t 4t

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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

For state of stress (1)

Point A, r = a, θ = 0
A
σ σ
σ ′xx = (1 − 0) = = σ ′yy σ=
Pd
a a a
2 2 2t
τ ′xy = 0
Pd
For state of stress (2) σ ′xx′ = − σ ′yy′ = 0 τ ′xy′ = 0
4t

σ xx =
Pd
−
2t 2 4t
Pd Pd
=
4t
( 2 −1)
Pd 2 Pd
σ yy = =
2 2t 4 t
τ xy = 0
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 STRESS CONCENTRATION & FRACTURE MECHANICS

Displacement
3 −ν
+1
s +1 1 + ν 2σ
v x =0 = σa = σa = a
4G 4G E
Plane strain

3 − 4ν + 1 2(1 − v 2 )
v= σa = σa
4G E

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Example

rθ

a a

45
46
 A
r θ 5
r= a θ = 153.4350
2
a a

KI θ θ 3θ  PR
σ xx
A
= cos 1 − sin sin  = 0.268
2πr 2 2 2  t
KI θ θ 3θ 
σ yy =
A
cos 1 + sin sin  = ...
2πr 2 2 2 
KI θ θ 3θ
τ xy
A
= cos sin cos = ...
2πr 2 2 2
Other stress components are zero.

Principal stresses:

47