Quantum Mechanics

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 Electron Microscope
• An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses a beam
of electrons instead of visible light to magnify objects. It provides
much higher resolution and magnification than optical
microscopes, allowing scientists to see structures as small as
individual atoms.
• The de Broglie wave nature of electron beam is used to increase
magnification and resolution of electron microscope.
• There are two types of electron microscope,
i. Transmission electron microscope (TEM), Produces a two-
dimensional image
ii. Scanning electron microscope (SEM), Produces images with a
three-dimensional.
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Component Function

Electron gun Produces the electron beam

Electromagnetic lenses Focus and control the beam
Specimen stage Holds the sample
Detectors Capture emitted electrons to
form an image
Vacuum system Prevents electron scattering

Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM): Can reach magnifications up to about

1,000,000x, allowing scientists to view structures at the atomic level .
Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM): Typically offer magnifications ranging from a
few hundred up to 500,000x, ideal for detailed surface imaging.

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 Note

• In an electron microscope, a lens isn’t made of glass like in optical

microscopes. Instead, it’s an electromagnetic (or sometimes electrostatic)
device that controls the path of electrons. Here’s what that means:
• Focusing the Electron Beam:
The lens uses magnetic or electric fields to bend and focus the electron
beam into a narrow, precise path, much like a glass lens focuses light rays.
This is crucial for achieving high resolution and sharp images.
• Controlling Magnification and Resolution:
By adjusting the strength and configuration of these fields, the lens system
determines the magnification and clarity of the image. Multiple lenses (e.g.,
condenser, objective, projector lenses) work in tandem to form a detailed
image of the specimen.
• Minimizing Aberrations:
Just as with optical systems, imperfections (or aberrations) can occur.
Advanced designs in electron lenses help reduce these aberrations, ensuring
that the final image accurately represents the specimen’s structure.

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 Applications of electronic microscope

i. Biological and Medical Sciences

• Cellular and Subcellular Imaging:Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) allow for detailed
visualization of cell organelles, viruses, bacteria, and macromolecular complexes.
• Pathology and Histology : Electron microscopes help in diagnosing diseases by revealing ultrastructural
changes in tissues.
• Virus and Protein Structure Studies : High-resolution images aid in understanding the structure of
viruses and complex proteins, which is essential for drug development.
ii. Materials Science and Engineering
• Microstructure Analysis : Electron microscopes are used to study the grain boundaries, dislocations, and
defects in metals, ceramics, and polymers.
• Nanomaterials Research:They enable the characterization of nanoparticles, nanowires, and other
nanoscale materials, which is vital for advancing nanotechnology .
• Crystallography : Electron diffraction techniques in TEM provide insights into the crystal structure of
materials .
iii. Semiconductor and Electronics
• IndustryIntegrated Circuit Inspection : Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) are crucial for inspecting
semiconductor devices, identifying manufacturing defects, and performing failure analysis .
• Microfabrication : They are used to analyze the fine details of microchips, transistors, and other
components in electronic devices.

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iv. Forensic Science
• Trace Evidence Analysis : Electron microscopy can examine minute particles,
fibers, or residues, providing critical information in criminal investigations.
• Surface Analysis:It is used to analyze the surface composition and morphology of
materials, which can be pivotal in forensic reconstructions.
v. Geology and Environmental Science
• Mineralogy : Electron microscopes help in the detailed study of minerals and
rocks, including the identification of fine crystallographic details.
• Environmental Studies : They are used to analyze pollutants and particulate
matter in air, water, or soil samples.
vi. Pharmaceutical Research
• Drug Delivery Systems:Imaging at the nanoscale assists in understanding the
morphology and behavior of novel drug delivery vehicles.
• Formulation Studies:Detailed characterization of active pharmaceutical
ingredients and excipients is possible with electron microscopy.
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 Numericals
1. The sun's surface temperature is 5700 K.
(i) how much power is radiated by the sun.
Solution. (i) Power radiated by the Sun
The power radiated by the Sun can be calculated using the Stefan-Boltzmann law, which states that
the power radiated per unit area of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of its
temperature:
P= σA
Where:
σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67× W ),
Calculate the surface area of the Sun
The radius of the Sun (R) is approximately 6.96× m. The surface area of a sphere is:
A=4π
​ A=4π ≈ 6.09×
Now, Calculate the power radiated by the Sun
Using T=5700 K and σ =5.67× W
P = σA
P = (5.67×)(6.09×)
P ≈ 3.85× W

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(ii) given that the distance to earth is about 200 sun radii , what is the maximum power possible
from one square kilometer solar energy ?
The power received from the Sun at a distance d (in this case, the
distance to Earth) is given by the inverse square law. The
intensity II (power per unit area) at Earth is:
I=P(4π)
Calculate the distance to Earth
The distance to Earth is given as 200 Sun radii. The radius of the Sun
is 6.96× m,
so: d = 200×R=200×6.96× m =1.392×m
Calculate the intensity at Earth
Substitute P =3.85× W and d=1.392× m:
I = 3.85×4π
​I ≈ 1361 W /
This is the solar constant, the power per square meter at Earth's
distance from the Sun.

Now , Calculate the power for one square kilometer

1 square kilometer = , so:
Pmax = I×= 1361× W =1.361× W

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(iii) what is the wavelength of maximum
intensity of solar radiation?
The wavelength of maximum intensity (λmax​) is given
by Wien's displacement law:
λmax= ​Where:
b is Wien's constant (2.898× m K),
T is the surface temperature of the Sun (5700 K).
Substitute the values:
λmax=2.898×x 5700
​λmax≈5.08× m=508 nm
This corresponds to green light, which is near the
peak of the visible spectrum.
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2. The temperature of your skin is approximately C. What is the wavelength at
which the peak occurs in the radiation emitted from your skin?
• To find the wavelength at which the peak occurs in the
radiation emitted by your skin, we can use Wien's
displacement law. This law relates the temperature of a
black body to the wavelength at which it emits the most
radiation:
λmax=
​Where:
b is Wien's constant (2.898× m ),
Convert skin temperature to Kelvin
The temperature of your skin is given as 32∘C. To convert Celsius
to Kelvin:
T=32+273.15=305.15 K
Apply Wien's displacement law
Substitute b=2.898×10−3 m K and T=305.15 K into the formula:
λ max =2.898×x 305.15
λ max ​≈ 9.50×m
λ max ≈ 9.50 μm
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3.An FM radio transmitter has a power output of 100 kW and operates at a frequency
of 94 MHz , how many photons per second does the transmitter emit?
Solution, Find the energy of a single photon
The energy of a photon is given by the Planck-Einstein relation:
E=h⋅f
The frequency of the transmitter is 94 MHz, which is:
f=94×
E=(6.626×)⋅(94×)
E ≈ 6.23× J
Calculate the number of photons per second
The transmitter has a power output of 100 kW, which is:
P=100× W= J/s
The number of photons emitted per second (N) is the total
power divided by the energy of a single photon:
N=​

N=
​N≈1.60× photons / s

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4. A light source of wavelength illuminates a metal and ejects photoelectrons with a maximum kinetic energy of 1 eV. A second light source with half the
wavelength of the first ejects photoelectrons with a maximum kinetic energy of 4.0 eV. Determine the work function of the metal.
Solution
To determine the work function (ϕ) of the metal, we will use the photoelectric equation:
Kmax = hf−ϕ
here, h is Planck's constant (6.626× J s),
We are given:
i. For the first light source:
1. Wavelength: λ,
2. Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons: K1=1 eV.
ii. For the second light source:
3. Wavelength: λ2,
4. Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons: K2=4.0 eV.
Relate wavelength and frequency
The frequency f of light is related to its wavelength λ by:
f=

K1=hf1−ϕ
Substitute the values
1 eV=h(−ϕ (1)
For the second light source (λ2):
K2=hf2−ϕ
Substitute the values :
4.0 eV=h()−ϕ
Subtract equation (1) from equation (2)
Subtract equation (1) from equation (2) to eliminate ϕ:
4.0 eV−1 eV=h() − h()(2)
Simplify:
3.0 eV=h(cλ)
From equation (1), we know:
h(cλ)=1 eV+ϕ
Substitute this into the simplified equation:
3.0 eV=1 eV+ϕ
Solve for the work function (ϕ)
ϕ=3.0 eV−1 eV=2.0 eV
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5. A 430 nm violet light is an incident on a calcium photo electrode with a work function of 2.71 eV. Find the
energy of the incident photons and the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons.
Solution, To solve this problem, we will use the photoelectric equation:
Kmax=hf−ϕKmax​=hf−ϕ
We are given:
Wavelength of incident light: λ=430 nm=430× m
Work function of calcium: ϕ=2.71 eV
Calculate the energy of the incident photons
The energy of a photon is given by:
E = hf = h
Substitute the values in equation
E=
E≈4.62×10J
energy to electron volts (eV):
1 electron volt = 1.602×. So:
E=4.62×1.602×≈2.88 eV
E=1.602×10−194.62×10−19​≈2.88 eV
Thus, the energy of the incident photons is 2.88 eV.
Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons
Using the photoelectric equation:
Kmax= E− ϕ
Substitute the values in above equation
Kmax = 2.88 − 2.71= 0.17 eV

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6. Cut –off frequency for the photoelectric effect in some materials is 8x Hz. When the incident light has a frequency of 1.2 x Hz, the
stopping potential is measured as 0.16 V. estimate a value of Plank’s constant from these data and determine the percentage error of
your estimation.
Solution:To estimate Planck's constant (h) and determine the percentage error, we will use the photoelectric equation and the
concept of the stopping potential.
Understand the photoelectric equation
The photoelectric equation relates the stopping potential (Vs​) to the frequency of the incident light (f) and the work function (ϕ):
eVs = hf−ϕ
The cut-off frequency (f0) is related to the work function by:
ϕ=hf0
Substitute this into the photoelectric equation:
eVs=hf−hf0 = h(f−f0)
Solve for Planck's constant (h)
Substitute these values into the equation:
eVs=h(f−f0)
h=
h=
h=
​h=6.408× J s
Compare with the accepted value of Planck's constant
The accepted value of Planck's constant is: h accepted =6.626× J s
Calculate the percentage error
The percentage error is given by:
Percentage Error=×100
Percentage Error=×100

Percentage Error=×100

Percentage Error≈3.29%Percentage Error≈3.29%

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7. X-rays with an energy of 300 keV undergo Compton scattering with a target .if the scattered x-rays are detected at relative to the incident x-rays,
determine the compton shift at this angle,the energy of the scattered x-rays,and the energy of the recoiling electron.
Given:
Energy of incident X-rays, E0=300 ke
Scattering angle, θ=
Convert the energy of the incident X-rays to wavelength
The energy of a photon is related to its wavelength by the equation:
E0 =
First, convert E0​from keV to joules:
E0=300 keV=300××1.602× J=4.806× J
.Now, calculate the wavelength λ0​:
λ0 = = =4.14× m.
Calculate the Compton shift
The Compton shift (Δλ) is given by: Δλ=λ′−λ0 = (1−cos⁡θ),where:
λ′ is the wavelength of the scattered X-rays,
m=9.109× kg (mass of an electron),
θ=30∘
If =2.426× m.
Δλ=(2.426× )(1−cos⁡30∘ = (2.426× )(1−0.866)=3.25× m
Calculate the wavelength of the scattered X-rays
The wavelength of the scattered X-rays is:
λ′=λ0+Δλ=4.14× +3.25× = 4.465× m.
Calculate the energy of the scattered X-rays
The energy of the scattered X-rays is:
E′=′..Substitute the values:
E’ = = 4.45×J = 4.45× x 6.25x eV=278 keV.
Calculate the energy of the recoiling electron
The energy of the recoiling electron is the difference between the energy of the incident X-rays and the scattered X-rays:
Ee=E0−E′=300 keV−278 keV=22 keV.

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8. A photon with a wavelength of 6.0xm collides with an electron .
After the collision the photon wavelength is found to have been
changed by exactly one (compton wavelength is 2.43x m)
(i) What is the photon’s wavelength after collision?
Solution; Calculating the Photon’s Wavelength After
Collision
Given:
Initial wavelength, λ=6.0× m.
Change in wavelength, Δλ=λC=2.43×
Using the Compton shift formula:
λ′=λ+Δλ=6.0× m+2.43× m =8.43× m

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(ii) Through what angle has been deflected in this collision?
Solution; Determining the Photon’s Deflection Angle
We need to find the angle θ through which the photon is
deflected. Using the Compton shift formula:
Δλ=λC(1−cos⁡θ)
Given Δλ=λCΔλ=λC​, we substitute:
λC=λC(1−cos⁡θ)
Dividing both sides by ​:
1=1−cos⁡θ
Solving for cos⁡θcosθ:
cos⁡θ=0
This implies:
θ=⁡(0)=90∘
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(iii) What is the angle for the electron after the collision?
Solution; To find the electron's recoil angle ϕ after the collision, we start with the
given relationship in Compton scattering:
cot⁡ϕ=(1+) tan⁡() Given:
The photon's scattering angle θ=90∘
The initial photon wavelength λ=6.0× m.
The Compton wavelength λC==2.43× m
Simplify the equation
Since θ=90∘, we have:
tan⁡() = tan⁡(45∘) =1Thus, the equation simplifies to:
cot⁡ϕ =(1+)
Substitute known values
We know =λC=2.43× m, and λ=6.0× m. Substituting these:
cot⁡ϕ = 1+ =1+0.405=1.405
Solve for ϕ
ϕ=(1.405)
ϕ≈35.3∘

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(iv) What is the electron’s kinetic energy ,in eV, after collision?
Solution. Calculating the Electron’s Kinetic Energy After Collision
The kinetic energy (Ke) of the electron after the collision can be found
using the energy conservation principle. The energy of the photon
before and after the collision is given by:
Ephoton, initial= Ephoton, final=​
The energy transferred to the electron is the difference between these
two energies:
Ke=Ephoton, initial− Ephoton, final = hc (−)
Substituting the known values:
Ke=(6.626× Js)×(3× m/s)(− )
Ke=(6.626× )×(3×)×(1.667−1.186)×
Ke​=9.56× J
Ke​=​≈59.7 keV

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