Form two combined science notes: compiled by Mr Musona

Biology Section

Variation
-these are the differences shown by organisms of the same species e.g. height, colour, sex,
shoe size, e.t.c.

Types of variation
-there are two types of variation: (a) continuous variation (b) discontinuous variation
(a) Continuous variation/Environmental variation
-these are differences between organisms of the same species which do not have clear cut
differences and have intermediates (in-between differences/changes)
-these characteristics change gradually e.g. height, weight, surface area of leaves, leaf length,
finger length, heart rate e.t.c
-the characteristics are measurable
-when measuring height, it starts with the shortest going to the tallest, however, from one
height to the next, there are possible heights connecting the trend
-it shows a normal distribution curve (bell-shaped) because the results are so close to each
other
-it is a change which can be made by the environment to which an organism is living in e.g. a
plant may be influenced in its height by factors such as soil fertility, water availability e.t.c.
and the weight of an animal may be influenced by the quality and quantity of food available
to one animal than the other of the same species

Continuous variation on number of seeds per pod

Number of seeds per pod

20
18
16
14
Number of pods

12
10
8 Number of seeds per pod
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
Number of seeds per pod

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(b) Discontinuous variation/Inheritance variation
-these show clear cut differences without any intermediates e.g. presence or absence of
earlobes in humans, tongue rolling, sex, eye colour, blood groups(only four groups: A, B, AB
or O), finger prints e.t.c

Discontinuous variation in blood groups

Blood Group
50
percentage of opulation

40

30

20
Blood Group
10

0
A B AB O
Blood Group

Comparing continuous and discontinuous variations

Continuous variations Discontinuous variations

1. They refer to small, indistinct Refer to the large, conspicuous differences
differences from the normal condition from the parents
2. They are already present in They are new variations through similar
population variations which might have occurred
previously
3. Usually unstable and non-heritable Usually stable and heritable

4. Can be represented by a smooth curve A curve is not produced

5. Very common in all organisms Appear suddenly and in few cases only

Nutrition: compiled by Mr Musona: 07/12/2017

Definition
-it is the study of food and its relationship to health
Nutrition in plants

Plants as universal producers of food

-green plants are the ultimate source of food for all organisms, including themselves.
-therefore, plants are primary producers

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-green plant leaves harness sunlight and convert carbon dioxide and water into chemical
energy in the form of carbohydrates (glucose/starch) through photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
-is a process by which green plant leaves make food using carbon dioxide, water and in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll

Word equation for photosynthesis

sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrates + oxygen
Chlorophyll
-the carbohydrates manufactured during photosynthesis are readily soluble, therefore cannot
be stored for future use by plants, hence are converted to starch which is insoluble and stored
for future use in plants
-therefore, to test if plants are photosynthesising we test for starch in green plant leaves
Experiment 1: Testing for starch in a leaf

Materials
-soft green leaf which has been in the light
-iodine solution
-alcohol
-dropper
-test tube or small bottle
-beaker or boiling tin
-burner and tripod stand
-gauze
-test tube holder
-white tile
Method
-boil the leaf in water (kill the leaf)
-remove the boiled leaf from water and boil it in alcohol over a water bath (to remove
chlorophyll)
-remove the leaf from alcohol and dip it in hot water for a minute to soften it (alcohol makes
it brittle and hard)
-place the soft leaf on a white tile and add two drops of iodine solution on it
Observations
Colour changes where there is starch to blue-black (dark black)
-iodine itself is brown in colour
Where there is no starch, there is no colour change.
Conclusion
Green plant leaves make food through photosynthesis and stored as starch

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 Test tube

Beaker Leaf

Boiling water alcohol

Burner

Tripod stand

Caution

Alcohol is inflammable! Put test tube with alcohol in a beaker of boiling water after putting
out the burner.

NB: killing the leaf is to destroy enzymes that help in chemical reactions of photosynthesis.

Leaf structure

Energy from sun

Translocation

Water

Carbon dioxide oxygen

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Internal structure of a leaf

What makes the leaf the universal food producer?

-the presence of chlorophyll (green pigment) which traps sunlight

-has a large surface area to collect sunlight (shape of the leaf)
-has stomata (pores) underneath through which carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf and
oxygen and water vapour diffuses out of the leaf
-their thickness allows light to reach all cells inside the leaf (they are thin)
-they have stalks which hold them in a proper position to trap most sunlight
-they have veins by which water is distributed to all the cells and manufactured food away
from the cells
NB: plants are the only food producers and animals are consumers. Wherever there is a
feeding system, the first stage always has plants.

Digestive system
Digestion is the breaking down of large insoluble particles of food into small soluble particles
that can be absorbed by the body.
-therefore, digestive system is a group of organs that are involved in the breaking down of
food particles into smaller particles which can be used by the body.

The alimentary canal

-is the path starting from the mouth, followed by food during digestion until excreted as
waste through the anus
-the organs that are involved are: mouth, gullet, stomach, small intestines, large intestines and
the anus
-it is also known as the digestive tract
Types of digestion

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-there are two types of digestion:
(1) Physical digestion or mechanical digestion
(2) Chemical digestion

The alimentary canal/digestive tract of human

1. Physical /mechanical digestion

-is the breaking down of large particles of food into smaller ones by the teeth in the
mouth and also by the stomach muscles squeezing food molecules mixing it with
digestive juices
2. Chemical digestion
-is done by the enzymes and digestive juices during chemical reactions with the food
-enzymes are special biological chemicals
-each enzyme has a special or specific food to act on e.g. salivary amylase work starch,
Enzymes in the stomach work on proteins e.t.c.
-it starts in the mouth where there is an enzyme (salivary amylase) in the saliva
-it continues along the alimentary canal until excretion of wastes
-after food is digested, its nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream in the small intestines
-the absorbed nutrients are used by the cells in the body for different functions that include;
growth, as energy, repairing of damaged tissues
-excess nutrients are stored by the liver
Functions of organs in the alimentary canal

1. Mouth

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 -using teeth, chops the food, lubricate it with the saliva
-mixes it with enzyme amylase which acts on starch
2. Gullet/oesophagus
-a tube which propels food from the mouth to the stomach using its muscles
3. Stomach
-stores and churns food
4. Small intestines
-is where most of the digestion system occurs and absorption of nutrients from digested
Food by the body
5. Large intestines
-reabsorbs fluids and stores faecal matter before excretion at the anus
Respiration Compiled by Mr Musona : 11/12/2017

Definition:
-it is the release of energy from food substances by the cells
Word equation
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + heat energy
Experiment to show that there is energy in food.

Is there energy in carbohydrates?

Materials
Ø Mealie-meal
Ø Burner
Ø Stand
Ø beaker or boiling tin
Ø Thermometer
Ø heating dish

Method
-place some mealie-meal in a heating dish or tin lid
-heat the mealie-meal until it begins to burn

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-light the mealie-meal in the dish with a match and remove the burner so that the meal can
burn on its own
-place a beaker of water above the burning meal
-record temperature changes using a thermometer from the start until the meal has burnt away
Observations
Temperature increases as the water is heat by the burning meal

Conclusion
Any fuel which is burnt releases energy in the form of heat. The energy trapped in plant
material during photosynthesis is released in our bodies by respiration.

Respiratory system

-the group of organs involved in the respiratory system are: nose and nasal passage, mouth,
windpipe or trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles, air sacs (alveoli), diaphragm
-when air enters through the nose, dust and smoke particles are filtered
-the nasal passages warm and moisten the air
-the trachea divides into two bronchi
-each bronchus enters a lung and further divides into bronchioles
-the bronchioles have minute air sacs at their ends

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Transport systems compiled by Mr Musona : 11/12/2017

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Transport system in plants

The internal structure of the dicotyledonous plant root

The internal structure of a dicotyledonous plant stem

Functions of the internal structures of the plant root and stem

1. Xylem – for water and mineral transport in plants

2. Phloem –for food transport within the plant
3. Cambium –separates the xylem and phloem
4. Epidermis –for absorption and protection
5. Cortex –for diffusion of water and mineral salts to the vascular bundles and storage of
food and water

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 6. Root hair-are the finger-like outgrowths which increases surface area for absorption
of water and mineral salts

Osmosis

-is the movement of water molecules from a region of their high concentration to a region of
their low concentration through a semi-permeable membrane

-this the process which helps plants get water from the soil

Water uptake by plants

-root hairs and the roots have cells which have vacuoles filled with cell sap
-the sap is a solution of mineral salts
-therefore, there is less water concentration in the root hairs and the roots than in the soil
-water moves from the soil around the root hairs into their cells’ vacuoles where there is high
concentration of cell sap and low water concentration
-concentration of cell sap increases across root cortex towards the xylem at the centre of the
roots
-the xylem then takes water up the stem
The active transport
-is the movement of ion particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration, against a concentration gradient.
-mineral salts move from the soil where they are less concentrated, towards the root hair
vacuoles where there is high concentration of cell sap
-it requires energy to move against concentration gradient
-the energy is obtained from cell respiration
-it is an opposing movement to osmosis
Transport in mammals

The heart

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Labels:
1. Vena cava
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve
4. Right ventricle
5. Left ventricle
6. Left atrium
7. Pulmonary vein
8. Aorta
9. Pulmonary artery
bicuspid valve
semi-lunar valve

Main blood vessels to and from the heart

1. Vena cava
-carries blood with less oxygen from the body to the heart
-it is in two branches: (a) superior vena cava (b) inferior vena cava
(a) Superior vena cava
-brings in blood from the head to the heart
(b) Inferior vena cava
-brings in blood from the legs to the heart
2. Pulmonary vein
-carries blood with more oxygen to the heart from the lungs
3. Pulmonary artery
-carries away blood with less oxygen from the heart to the lungs
4. Aorta
-the largest artery in the body which carries blood with more oxygen from the heart to the rest
of the body

Functions of the heart

-receiving and pumping of blood around the body

___________________________________________________________________________

Reproduction systems: compiled by Mr Musona ZPCS 30/12/2017 Kadoma

The internal structure of dicotyledonous plant seed (bean)

Bean seed external structure

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Monocotyledon plant seed (maize)

-germination is the beginning of growth in a plant

-the embryo (plumule and radicle) grows into a new plant
-bean seed has two cotyledons (first leaves) where food is stored
-maize seed has one small cotyledon
-food in a maize seed is stored in the endosperm

Flowering plants

Structure of wind pollinated plant flower

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-has long stamen sticking out loosely at the tip of the filament
-has small, dull-coloured and less attractive flower
-does not produce nactor
-the anthers produce large quantities of tiny, light, smooth and dry pollen which can easily be
blown by wind
-the anthers are big and higher than stigmas
-the stigmas are large and feathery so that they catch any pollen grains blowing past
-examples of wind pollinated plant flowers are: maize plant, grass e.t.c.

Structure of insect pollinated plant flower

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-has large colourful petals
-produce scent and nector
-has sticky stigma
-has small anthers
-has large coarse, spiky pollen and few in number
-the reproductive parts are enclosed in colourful petals
-examples of insect pollinated plant flowers are: bean plant, rose flower, orchid plant e.t.c
-a group of petals is called corolla
-a group of sepals are called calyx
Functions of parts of a flower
1. Anther
-a male sex organ which produces pollen grains
-pollen grains are the male sex cells
2. Filament
-is also part of male sex organ for flowers which holds the anther on proper position
For pollination
2. Stigma
-the female sex organ which collects pollen grains from anthers
4. Style
-also female sex organ for flowering plants which holds the stigma in position up and
Allows the pollen tube to grow down to the ovary
5. Nectary
-produces nectar which attracts insects
6. Sepals
-protects the flower when it is still in the bud (the unopened flower)
7. Petals
-coloured or scented to attract insects or birds
8. Ovary
-contains the ovules

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9. Ovules
- the female sex cells
Reproduction system in human

Male reproductive system

1. Prostate gland
-secretes an alkaline fluid that protects sperms from damage by male urethral and
vaginal acids

2. Sperm
-is the male sex cells
3. Testes
-produces the sperms and secretes the hormones which make boys change in their
Bodies at puberty stage e.g. testosterone
4. Sperm duct
-are tubes through which sperms reach the urethra from the testes
5. Urethra
-is a tube which stretches from the bladder through which urine and sperms pass out
6. Penis
-the male reproductive sex organ for ejaculating sperms and passing out urine

Female reproductive system

1. Ovary
-produce female sex hormones, progesterone and oestrogen
-produce, store and release the female sex cells, the ova (plural) or ovum (single)
2. Uterus
-it is where implantation of a fertilized ova occurs and the embryo grows
3. Cervix

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 -is the opening of the uterus
4. vagina
-receives penis during sexual intercourse and is the birth canal during child birth
5. oviduct
-is the site of fertilization and conducts the ovum to the uterus

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Health and diseases compiled by Mr Musona 14/12/2017 ZPCS Kadoma

Healthy
-is a state of the body when all its systems are working normally (well-being)
-when the body systems are not working normally, then we talk of diseases
What should we do to remain healthy?
-have balanced diet
-exercise regularly
-need clean air and water
-protection from extremes of weather
-avoid stale food
Causes of diseases
-pathogens
-poisons
-poor nutrition

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-inherited factors
(1) Pathogens
-these are disease giving organisms, examples:
Kind of pathogen Size Examples of diseases caused
Viruses Less than millionths of a Aids, common cold, flu
millimetre
Bacteria Less than thousandths of a Sore throat, pneumonia
millimetre
Fungi Greater than hundredths of a Ringworm of the skin
millimetre
Protozoa Greater than hundredths of a Sleeping sickness, dysentery
millimetre
Worms Visible to the naked eye Bilharzia, elephantiasis

Bilharzia
-is also known as snail fever or schistosomiasis
-it is caused by worms
-it is a water borne disease
-the parasite may live in any part of the body of the host animal (human)
-if the parasite lives in the brain or heart of the host, death may result
Parasite
-is an organism which depends on another living organism for its food
Symptoms
-itchiness on the skin
-feel tired and weakness after a week
-headaches and nausea
Signs
-may have blood in urine or faeces
Prevention of bilharzia
-avoid contact with infected water
-avoid swimming in rivers
-stop urinating and defecating around water sources and in water
-avoid fishing with feet in water
-avoid washing clothes in rivers
-avoid bathing in rivers
-it can also be controlled through breaking its life cycle
-through educating people on avoiding to get contact with fresh water bodies such as rivers,
ponds and dams which may be contaminated by the parasite
Treatment
-it can be treated using a single dose of praziquantel drug

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 Life cycle of bilharzia parasite

inside eggs
human host

worms
burrow into free larvae
skin

adult parasite
worms inside snail

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Chemistry Section compiled by Mr Musona 2017

(1)
Separation methods and applications

1. Filtration

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Definition: it is a method of separating insoluble solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by
adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass

-a mixture of liquid and solid is placed into a filter paper

-the liquid flows through the filter paper into the container
-the liquid in the container is called filtrate
-the remaining solid in the filter paper inserted into a funnel is called the residue

Application of filtration in our daily lives

1 It is used in vacuum cleaners
-dust-filled air is passed through a filtering bag inside the machine
-solid particles are trapped within the bag while clean air passes out through the machine
2 In motor vehicles

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-dirt particles are filtered from fuels by filters to avoid choking of the engines
3 In water treatment
-solid dirt particles are trapped by sand filled tanks before chemicals are added to purify
water before pumped to the consumers

2. Winnowing
-used to separate solid dry substances of different weights
Application of winnowing in our daily lives
-it is used when grain is separated from chuff
-chuff weighs less and is blown away by wind living grain in the dropping container
-this method uses wind as medium for separation

3. Magnetism
-is the ability to attract other materials
Application of magnetism in our daily lives
-it used to separate metallic objects from grain at the grinding mills

4. Evaporation
-a method used to separate soluble substances from solutions using their chemical and
physical properties

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-it is used to collect a soluble solid (solute) from the solvent
NB. Avoid heating directly over burner since the heat may cause the crystals not form well.

Application in the industry

-used in the manufacture of salt

5. Simple distillation
-used in recovering solvent from a solute
-it has two aspects of evaporation at boiling point followed by condensation

Application in the industry

-used in the purification of drinking water e.g. producing fresh water from sea water

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6. Fractional distillation
-used in the separation of a mixture of miscible liquids
-the separation is achieved by having various out-let pipes at different heights along the
column

Application in industry
-in the separation of crude oil

Matter
-is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space)
Mass
-the measure of amount of matter in a substance
Concentration

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-is the amount of solute that is dissolved in a solvent
Solvent
-is a liquid that allows substances to dissolve in it
Solute
-is a substance that dissolves in a solvent
Determining the concentrations of solutions
-it can be done when the solute and the solvent in a solution are identified
-solutes can be solids, gases or other liquids
-units of concentration are: g/cm3or kg/l [mass of solute per volume of solvent]
Dilution
-is a solution that is made by adding more solvent to a solution of known concentration
Experiments

Experiment 1:0
Aim
To prepare a set of dilute solutions

Materials
Ø Four large beakers
Ø Dye
Ø Water
Ø Glass rod
Procedure
· Label the four beakers (A;B;Cand D)
· Pour about 50ml of water into the beaker A
· Add five drops of dye to the water
· Stir the liquid using a glass rod until all the water is coloured [a solution of the dye
has been made]
· Pour about 5ml of the prepared solution into beaker B
· Add water to beaker B until the water level rises to the 50ml mark [the solution will
have been diluted ten times]
· Compare the solutions in beaker A and B
· Use beaker B solution to repeat pouring into a further container C about 5ml of that
solution and pour the water until it reaches the 50ml mark [solution diluted further
ten times]
· Repeat the process into beaker D
Observations
v Each time the solution was diluted, it became paler [weaker] until the colour
disappeared
Results
è This means that there were very few dye particles left in the 50ml of water

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-high concentrations of a substance give solutions of darker or deeper colours
-when dilution is increased the colour density decreases, but some colour particles will
remain in the solution

Calculating dilutions
-the dilutions are represented as percentage values out of 100% solution value
e.g. 80%, 20% concentration

For liquid solutes use the following formula:

Total volume of solution x 100%

Volume of solvent

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Examples
1. Calculate the volume of the solvent needed in each test tube in order to create a set of
sample solutions that represent 100%, 80%, 60%, 40% and 20% concentrations.

Concentration Solute (ml) Solvent (ml) Total volume (ml)

100% 10 0 10
80% 8 2 10
60% 6 4 10
40% 4 6 10
20% 2 8 10
0% (reference 0 10 10
sample)

Solute =% of concentration x Total volume of solution

Example 1

What is the volume of the solute in a solution of total volume 10ml when the concentration is
80%?

Given that: solute = % of concentration x Total volume of solution

è = 80/100 x 10ml
è = 80 x 10
100
=8ml
To calculate the volume of the solvent of the same concentration of 100%:

Percentage of solute to solvent: 100% -80% = 20%

Therefore, volume of solvent= 20 x 10 (total volume of solution)
100
= 2ml
Mole Concept

Mole
-is a measure of the number of particles, molecules or atoms in a sample of substance
-the number of particles, atoms or molecules in one mole of anything is always equal to
= 6.023 x 10 23
1 mole = 6.023 x 10 2
6.23 x 1023 is an Avogadro’s constant (number)

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Example
The mass of hydrogen atom is 1g.
1 mole of hydrogen atom= 6.023 x 1023 particles

Formula for calculating moles: number of moles= mass of a given substance

Mass of 1 mole of that substance
Worked example
One mole of potassium permanganate crystals has a mass of 158g. Calculate the mass of
0.01 mole of potassium permanganate and the number of particles in that mass of potassium
permanganate.

(1)
Number of moles =given mass of a substance
Mass of 1 mole of that substance
Given: number of moles = 0.01 moles
Mass of 1 mole of substance=158g
Given mass=?

è 0.01moles = given mass of a substance

è 158g
è 0.01 x 158= mass
↔ mass = 0.01 x 158
=1.58g
(2)

Number of particles= 6.023 x 1023 =1 mole

1 mole =6.023x1023particles
0.01moles =less?
Therefore, let the number of particles in 0.01moles be x
Solve for x in the equation:
x= 0.01 moless x 6.023x1023 particles
1mole
x= 6.023x10 21particles
___________________________compiled by Mr Musona 0774377378_______________________
Acids and bases

Acid
-is a chemical compound that neutralises a base
Base
-a chemical compound that neutralises an acid

How to identify acids and bases

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 1. Acids
-they turn blue litmus paper red
-the red litmus paper remains red, it does not change its colour
Properties of acids
-have a sour taste
-can be corrosive
-become less acidic when combined with alkalis
-change the colour of the blue litmus from blue to red
Examples of acids
-hydrochloric acid (chemical formula: HCI)
-sulphuric acid (chemical formula: H2SO4)
-a lemon juice
-tea

2. Bases
-turns the red litmus paper colour from red to blue
-the blue litmus paper remains blue, it does not change its colour

Properties of bases
-feel slippery
-can be corrosive
-become less alkaline when combined with acids
Examples of bases
-bicarbonate of soda
-handy Andy
-sodium hydroxide (chemical formula: NaOH)
-all carbonates e.g. calcium carbonate
-all metal oxides e.g copper oxide
-all metal hydroxides e.g NaOH
Acid –base reactions
-when a base and an acid react they neutralise each other
-then, a reaction between a base and an acid is a neutralisation reaction
-during acid-base reaction, a salt and water are formed
-the type of salt formed depends on the type of acid involved in the reaction

Examples of salts formed

1. Sulphuric acid → sulphates e.g. copper sulphate, ammonium sulphate
2. Nitric acid → nitrates e.g. Ammonium nitrate
3. Hydrochloric acid → chlorides e.g. NaCI (sodium chloride)
General word equation for neutralisation reactions:
Acid + Base → salt + water

(Are reactants) (Are products)

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Types of neutralisation reactions
1. Acid + metal oxide → salt + water
2. Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
3. Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide gas
Neutralisation experiments

Experiment 1
Acids + metal oxides → (a salt) + water (neutralization reactions)
Aim:
To investigate the reactions of acids with metal oxides

Materials
Ø Beaker
Ø Conical flask
Ø Spatula
Ø Stirring rod
Ø Filter funnel
Ø Filter paper
Ø Burner
Ø Tripod stand
Ø Gauze
Ø Red and blue litmus papers
Ø Tongs
Ø Dilute sulphuric acid
Ø 1g of copper(II) oxide
Procedure
v Put 20cm3of dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker
v Heat it over a burner until it is almost boiling
v Use spatula to add small quantities of copper(II) oxide to the heated mixture
v Stir the mixture each time after adding copper(II) oxide
v Use tongs to lower pieces of red and blue litmus paper into the solution
v Record the colour changes of the litmus paper, if any
v Heat the mixture for another minute or two
v Turn off the burner and let the mixture cool
v Test the mixture using the red and blue litmus papers again
v Record the your observations
v Filter the cooled mixture
Results
· A blue solution in the conical flask left after filtering
NB: if the solution is not clear, repeat the filtration

Conclusion
The blue solution left in the flask is the copper sulphate (a salt) and water

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Experiment 2
Acids + metal hydroxides → (a salt) + water (neutralization reactions)
Aim:
To investigate the reactions of acids with metal hydroxide

Materials
· Sodium hydroxide solution
· Dilute hydrochloric acid
· Dropper
· Universal indicator
· Test tube / small beaker
· Measuring cylinder/ teaspoon
Procedure
Ø Place about 10ml (two teaspoons) of sodium hydroxide solution in the test tube or
beaker
Ø Add a drop of universal indicator
Ø Use the colour of the indicator to determine the pH of the sodium hydroxide (dark
blue, pH-14)
Ø Use the dropper to add hydrochloric acid to the sodium hydroxide solution
Ø Swirl the beaker or test tube after every few drops
Ø When the indicator turns light blue, add one drop of acid at a time, stop when the
indicator turns green (neutral colour)
Results
v Hydrochloric acid reacts with the sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium
chloride (salt) and water
v Equation of the reaction in the test tube:
v Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water

Experiment 3
Acids + Carbonates → (a salt) + water + carbon dioxide (neutralization reactions)
Aim
To investigate the reactions of acids with carbonates.

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Materials
· Three test tubes
· Retort stand
· Spatula
· Sodium carbonate
· Nitric acid NB: corrosive!!
· Hydrochloric acid [Corrosive!!]
· Sulphuric acid [Corrosive!!]
· Lime water
· Delivery tube
· Cork
Procedure
v Place 2mI of dilute hydrochloric acid in a test tube
v Add a spatuIa of sodium carbonate
v Fit the cork and delivery tube to the top of test tube
v Submerge the other end of the delivery tube into lime water in another test tube
v Observe and record observations
v Test the gas produced [ carbon dioxide ]
v Repeat the experiment two more times using other acids and record the observations
Results
-they are recorded in a table
Reaction of sodium Observations Gas evolved (if any)
carbonate and acids
1. Hydrochloric acid -a brisk effervescence occurs Carbon dioxide gas
-clear lime water turned
milky→ presence of carbon
dioxide
2. Sulphuric acid -a fizz is noticed during the carbon dioxide gas
reaction
-the clear lime water turned
milky →presence of carbon
dioxide
3. Nitric acid -a fizzy sound is produced Carbon dioxide gas
during the reaction
-the clear lime water turned
milky→ presence of carbon
dioxide

Products of the reactions

v sodium chloride (a salt) + water + carbon dioxide
v sodium sulphate (a salt) +water + carbon dioxide
v sodium nitrate (a salt) + water + carbon dioxide
Applications of Acid-base reactions

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 1. Baking bread
Ø Bicarbonate soda (NaHCO3) as a base is used in baking
Ø Reacts with acidic ingredients in bread or cake dough
Ø Carbon dioxide gas is emitted and that makes the mixture to rise

2. Relief in insect bites

Ø bicarbonate soda as base is used to neutralise Bee (insects) bites that inject
acidic chemicals from their bites
Ø an alkaline injection from Wasp bite is treated using a weak acid like vinegar

3. Teeth cleaning
Ø Most toothpaste contain calcium carbonate or aluminium hydroxide
Ø Their particles are slightly rough, they remove plaque from our teeth when we
brush using them
Ø Toothpaste neutralizes acids in the mouth to protect teeth from corrosion
(decay)
Plaque: is a sticky leftover from food that contain bacteria

4. Crop farming
Ø Agricultural lime is used in crop fields to neutralise soil acids because some
crops do not well in acidic soils
Ø the lime contains calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide that reduces acidity
in soil, thereby allowing sensitive crops to flourish
5. Stomach acid problems
Ø Excess stomach acid causes heartburn and indigestion
Ø Anti-acids are used to neutralise the excess acid in the stomach
Ø These anti-acids contain bases like: calcium carbonate (CaCO3); magnesium
carbonate (MgCO3); magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] and aluminium
hydroxide [AI(OH)3]
6. Swimming pools
Ø Swimming pool water requires constant balance between acid and base
Ø Soda ash is used to increase the pH and pool acid is used to lower the pH
when necessary
____________________compiled by Mr Musona(ZPS Kadoma)______________________________

Industrial Processes

1. Soap Production

Saponification
-is a process used to produce soaps
-it is the combining of a fat or oil and an alkaline to form a soap and glycerol

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What are soaps?
-soaps are sodium salts made by reacting sodium hydroxide with fats or oils
Fat + alkali →soap + glycerol
How is soap made?

1. Raw materials
-clean, purified form of fat (often vegetable-based oils) e.g. palms kernel oil, coconut
oil (olive oil)
-animal fat (has to be purified because has many impurities)

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