Cells

What they are Composition How they function How they function in tissues How tissues function in organs Organs of the body Historical background- Discovering that cells are the basic unit of all life 166 - !nton "an #eeuwenhoe$ invented the microscope 166%- &obert Hoo$e loo$s at cor$ and saw 'cubicles( he called cells 16)*- #eeuwenhoe$ loo$s at water and sees 'wretched beasties( 1+,+- -atthias .chleiden sees cells in every plant/ says Cells are the basic unit of all plants0 1+,1- 2heodore .chwann saw cells in all animals and said Cells are the basic unit of all animals0 1+%%- &udolph "irchow states the cell theory0 3 Cells are the units of structure in all living things0 3 Cells are the units of function in all living things0 3 !ll cells come from pree4isting cells0 Tools used in cytology #ight microscopes- use light energy to illuminate the ob5ect to produce an image of something that can be live or dead 3 .imple light microscopes- one lens -agnifying glass6 hand lens object image 3 Compound light microscopes- 78 lenses in a series Ocular and one ore more ob5ectives Ours have three ob5ectives 9scan/ low/ high: -agnification ;7 4 9best microscopes: &esolving power< =><7 nanometers >< wavelength ?or light/ > <* nanometers &esolution 9clarity:- how clearly you can discriminate between two ob5ects lying close together &esolving power- what is the smallest ob5ect that can be clearly seen by a microscope @lectron microscopes- use a beam of electrons to illuminate the ob5ect to produce an image/ only possible on dead specimens0 2ransmission electron microscope .canning electron microscope 9surface only: 2unneling electron microscope -agnification ;7% / 4 th > of electron beam < 1 nanometer 91/ / / of a meter &esolving power< 0% nanometers

Cells 2wo typesA 3 Bro$aryotic- no nucleus/ no membrane-bound organelles -evolved about ,0% billion years ago
Capsule (some have it, not all) Cell wall (all bacteria have) Plasma (cell) membrane Cytoplasm Ribosomes

lagella (analogous to eu!aryotic flagella) Circular chromosomes (",### to $,### genes) Plasmids (contain about 12 genes including those for antibiotic resistance)

Other classification schemes 3 Cocci- spherical 3 Cacillus- rod shaped 3 .pirillum- spiral shaped .taph infections are strings of cocci/ but .pirillum never forms chains Dmportance of Bro$aryotic cellsA 3 Dnvolved in material cycling 9decomposers: 3 Broducers 9some: 3 Chemosynthesis 9all chemo synthesiEers are pro$aryotes: 3 Bhoto synthesiEers 3 .ymbiots 9maintain pH/ water balance: 3 Bathogenic Dmportance of Bro$aryotic celled bacteria -many are autotrophs -many are decomposers -some are pathogenic cause disease 3 @u$aryotic cells- have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope and membrane bound organelles * FingdomsA -Blant

-!nimal -?ungi -Brotist 9single-celled: -all contain membrane bound organelles and a nucleus surrounded by an envelope Closer Look at Plasma Membranes Blasma -embraneA Bhospholipid bilayers with cholesterol and proteins interspersed BroteinsA 3 Channel 9gated/ not gated: 3 @nEymes 3 Bumps 3 ?asteners- anchor to a basement membrane 3 &eceptors 9glycolipids increase specificityG '?luid -osaic -odel of cell 9or of Blasma -embranes:( developed by .angar and Hicholson in the 116 s
% phospholipid % protein (in this case, channel) cells have 1#,###& channels % cholesterol

2his is a model of a unit membrane/ meaning whether or not they are surrounding cell organelles or cell membranes they are all composed similarly0 -embrane ?low 9only occurs in eu$aryotic cells:
Rough '(R( ribosomes

1) structure *olgi bodies+ old proteins and put mar!ers on them inished Protein

Membrane bound organelles (Eukaryotic) @ndoplasmic &eticulum 9@&:

! canal of the endoplasmic reticulum is called a cistern 2wo types of @& 3 &ough @& 9&@&: has ribosomes embedded in it &ibosomes embedded in &@& and free ribosomes attached to microtubrials also have two subunits called a base and head0 ?or ribosomes embedded in the &@&/ the base is attached to the cistern0 2he head of all ribosomes reads m&H! to see if a protein should be made on a free ribosome so that it will be $ept in the cell/ or on the &@& so it can

leave the cell0

R'R
cytoplasm Protein mR,-+ tag (where to go), how to synthesi.e (/0P1R2-,2), adenine chain to slow down an en.yme that brea!s down R,- and 3,-

*olgi body 3ifferent en.ymes in each segment fold proteins in different ways

/ntestine (or other location)

Plasma 0embrane

3 .mooth @& 9.@&: is devoid of ribosomes .@& is found in all cells but only in small amounts0 However/ it is abundant in liver cells0 .@& synthesiEes lipids/ especially cholesterol/ and it also deto4ifies poisons and to4ins 9li$e alcohol: -vacuoles seIuester susbstances -in animals small vacuoles -food vacuoles -contractile vacuoles -in plants very large -a single central vacuole filled with water/ salts/ and sugar 9a$a sap vacuoles or tonoplasts: -turgor pressure 9inward osmosis: 9due to hypertonicity of the sap vacuole: Golgi Bodies -flattened sacs within the cytoplasm that receive vesicles from the &@& 9rough endoplasmic reticulum: containing the primary protein structure folding occurs with the help of chaperone proteins contained within the golgi body -vesicles bud off and carry the protein to ad5acent golgi sacs for more pac$aging -finally they apply oligosaccharides 9%-17 glucose molecules in branched chains: or glycolipids to the finished product increases specificity Lysosomes -double membrane with many Hydrogen 98: pumps 9increases acidity: embedded within the membrane -contains powerful hydrolytic enEymes 9digestive: -macrophages 9white blood cells: contain many lysosomes

Plastids -in plants only -endysymbionts differentiate intoA -leucoplasts 9amyloplasts: store starch -chromoplasts petals/ s$ins of plants color -chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and are involved in photosynthesis Peroxisomes -9glyo4isomes: -animal and plant -contain catalase which brea$s down H7 7 -mitochondria endosymbionts involved in aerobic cellular respiration as with plants have double membranes/ ribosomes/ and circular DH! -HO2 an organelle however/ does have a membrane envelope Nucleus 9HO2 an organelle: -surrounded by a double membrane -nuclear envelope formed from components of the @&

-the nuclear envelope is 'laminated(- comes apart -interloc$ing pieces li$e a 5igsaw puEEle -pieces come apart during mitosis -this occurs when pieces are phosphorylitic 9!2B is added to brea$ apart: -when the phosphate group is ta$en off it comes bac$ together -when the phosphate group is added brea$s apart -nucleoplasm the 'stuff(Jmatri4 of the nucleus -slightly more dense than cytoplasm -within nuceloplasm is chromatin -chromatinA coiled chromosomes -7 2ypesA -Heterochromatin very dense/ highly coiled/ non-actively transcribed chromosomes -chromosomesJproteins were needed at one point but not anymore -@uchromatin diffuse/ actively transcribed chromosomes

-nucleolus one or more present area where several chromosomes overlap at coding regions for ribosomesJribosomal synthesis -histomes protein component of chromosomes -spools that allow chromosomes to coil and super coil around them Non-Membrane Bound Organelles -organelles without membranes &ibosomesA -ribonucleo protein -7 subunitsA large and small -manufactured in nucleus and cytoplasm assembled in nucleus -leave nucleus through pores and reside in cytoplasm -every cell has thousands 9some have tens of thousands: -functionA synthesis of proteins translation Proteosomes -several hundred in each cell -'trash cans( -reIuire !2B -ubiIuitin prevalent -a protein -tags the misfolded proteins -primary motor proteins drag it to proteosome -enters the proteosome and is digested into amino acids -the proteases hydrolytically brea$ down the peptide bonds Cytoskeleton -all components are proteins -intricate networ$ of microfilaments and microtubules throughout the cytoplasm -give shape and form to cytoplasmJcells -dynamic 9not static: structure reforms/ reshapes -without it/ one cannot heal wounds/ fetuses canKt develop/ there is no cell

division/ and proteins cannot go to golgi bodies for pac$aging -microfilaments all are a part of e4tracellular matri4 9stuff outside cell: -smallestA elastin -diameter is ;) nm -intermediateA ropeli$e -$aratin -lamnia -diameter is ; 1 nm -largeA collagen -diameter is ;1* nm -actin small microfilament 9;) nm in diameter: -found universally in eu$aryotic cells -helps maintain shape -involved in cell division in animals 9cyto$inesis: -muscle contraction actin8myosin microfilaments

-muscle cell typesA smooth s$eletal cardiac -all have actin and myosin microfilaments -actin and myosin are diffuse in smooth muscle -actin and myosin are highly organiEed in cardiac and s$eletal muscle actinA ;) nm myosinA ;71 nm s$eletalA

Cross sectionA

-actin slides over myosin for muscle contraction -microtubules found e4clusively within cells - ;7% nm diameter/ hollow -material is 'wal$ed( over/ things donKt pass through the tube -li$e rails -made of subunits called tubulin -hold organelles in place -move organelles around -maintain shape of cell -involved in separationJmigration of chromosomes during mitosis anaphase -from cilia and flagella -motor proteins called dyneins -move 9wal$: along microtubules -each phosphorylation and dephosphorylation one step -in cell mitosisA microtubules arise from centrioles 9non-membrane bound organelles in animal cells only: and radiate out and attach to the centromere

Cilia and !lagella -all cilia and flagella in eu$aryotic cells are constructed similarly -made of microtubules

-always the microtubules are in a 1 8 7 doublet arrangement

-cytosol- from plasma membrane to nuclear envelope matri4 without membrane-bound organelles cytoplasm from plasma membrane to nuclear envelope everything Cell to Cell Lunctions

2ight 5unctionsA seal neighboring cells together/ prevent lea$age !dherens 5unctionsA actin filaments/ help stic$ cells to each other DesmosomesA net cells together Map 5unctionsA for communication Hemi-desmosomesA anchor cells to basement membraneJe4tra-cellular -atri4 -plants have only plasmodesmata -communication 5unction