FOUNDATION

ENGINEERING

By-Jaspal Singh
Ex-IES
 CONTENT

*Foundation Engineering.
*Deep Foundation.
*Foundation on expansive soil.
*Stabilisation of soils.
*Sub-Soil exploration.
 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Structure foundations are the substructure

elements which transmit the structural load
to the earth in such a way that the

supp rting
soil is not overstressed not undergo
deformation that would cause excessive
settlement of the structure
Here the properties of the supporting soil
must be expected to affect the choice of
type of structural foundation suitable for
the structure
The failure of foundation may be due to
i settlement of soil foundation It is called as
settlement failure
1 Sliding slipping of soil foundation 97 is
Called as shear failure
The foundation should be safe in Shear
Criteria as well as settlement criteria
Types of Foundations

obey

Shallow Deep
Foundation Foundation

a
Terzaghi D I 1 a
Terzaghi Dt I
B
b Carries the load due b Carries the load due
to Base Resistance to Base Side
Resistance
 Shallow Foundation

Raft Mat Footing

Isolated Combined Strip spread

Square Rectangle Circular

Rectangular Trapezoidal

Deep Foundation

Pile Well Caisson Footing

Note AspersKempton
For Shallow foundation 12.5
It
 a Shallow Foundation
A Shallow foundation transmit structural load
to the Soil Strata at a relatively small depth
by the action of end Bearing
As per Terzaghi if 1 it is termed as
I
Shallow foundation

Note Dpt
I 15 it is termed as Moderate deep

Foundation

It is further classified into raft Mat footing

b Deep Foundation
If D I it is termed ap Deep foundation

If D 15 it is termed ay Very deep foundation

In deep foundation load is supported partly by
frictional resistance around the surface and
rest by bearing at the base of foundation
While Constructing Shallow foundation in open
excavation the disturbance in soil is minimal
 However in case of deep foundation disturbance
of soil extends to a larger Zone along the
length of deep foundation

Note c for season y of economy shallow foundation

are always preferred over deep foundation

Guidelines for selection of Foundation

Type of soil loadingCondition Suitable
Foundation

If Structural load is less Shallow foundation

soil is medium to Dense
If structural load is heavy Raft Deep
Soil is loose weak Foundation
If Swelling pressure is high Raft Deep
differential free swell Foundation
value is more than 35
If footing area is more than Raft foundation
40 of plinth area Combined footing
If Structural load is heavy
and foundation is to be compaction pile
placed in running water
river Sea Canal
 Ifsoil is loose saturated compaction pile
Sand is prone to
lique action
If Structural load is less Isolated footing
1 3 Storey Building
If Soil is expansive high Floating or balanci
Swelling Shrinkage ng foundation Under
Characteristics is found reamed pile

General Requirements of foundations

For a satisfactory performance a foundation must
Satisfy the following three conditions
i Location
depth Criterion
ii shear failure criterion Bearing Capacity Criterion
Iii Settlement criterion

A foundation must be properly locatedand

founded at such a depth that its performance
is not affected by factors such as lateral
expulsion of soil beneath the foundation seasonal
volume changes caused by freezing thawing
presence of moisture adjoining structure
A foundation must be safe against shear failure
or soil Rupture
 I
The settlement of the foundation especially
dif erential
settlement must be within the
permissible limit
Excessive settlement may effect the utility of
the Structure may also cause its damage
decreases its aesthetic value

Note The three requirement are independent of

each other and must be satisfied separately

Location Depth Criterion of foundation

As a general rule any foundation should be
placed at a depth where soil strata is adequate
from the point of view of bearing capacity or
settlement criteria
However it must be placed at a minimum
depth of 0.5m below natural Ground surface
Further foundation must be placed below the
Zone of Volume changes where VolumeChange
is expected
In expansive soil depth of foundation must be
placed below the depth of frost Zone
The Zone of seasonal variation in water content
varies in thickness from 1.5m 3.5 m for Black
Cotton Soil
 Foundations for structure in river have to be
protected from the Scouring action of water
The depth of foundation in such case must be
below the Scour level
When footing are adjacent to sloping ground
or where the base of footing are near by at
different levels or at level different from the
of footing of adjacent structure
Following recommendations are adopted
a When the Ground surface slopes downward
adjacent to a footing the sloping surface
should not encroach upon a frustum of
Bea ing
material under the footing having sides
Which make an angle of 600 with horizontal
for sock and 300 for soil the horizontal
distance from the lower edge of the footing to
the Sloping Surface Shall be of atleast 60cm
for sock 90 em for soil

Noooooo300
b for footing in Granular soils the line Joining
the lower adjacent edges of the adjacent
footing should not have a slope steeper than
2H I V
C In
Clayey Soil Slope of line joining the tower
adjacent edge of the upper footing the
upper adjacent edge of lower footing should
not be steeper than 2H I V

togging t
oofooting

d To avoid damage to an existing structure the

foundation for a new Structure at an adjacent
site should be located at suitable distance
such that
The adjacent edge of the new footing must be
atleast at a distance s from the edge of
the existing footing where s is the width of
 larger footing
e The line from the edge of new footing to the
edge of 450 or less with the horizontal
plane that is the distance s should be
Greater than the difference in elevation between
the adjacent footing
Ifeven position newof existing footing
were to be interchanged the recommendation
would remain Same
This provision ensure that the stress overlap
due to the adjacent footing does not assume
any significant proportion

Newfootingon
Basil 3000

FB
9050

82

iMetingon
poorsoil

f When a new footing is placed lower than an

old footing the existing structure may be
endangered because of lateral Flow of soil
 e au of
from beneath the existing footing
The excavation must not therefore be too
close to the existing footing if it is done
proper provision of bracing must be provided

Bearing Capacity of shallow Foundation

Terminology Used for analysis of bearing
Capacity

Gross Pressure Gross loading Intensity Eg

For a footing constructed with its base at the
depth Df below the ground surface the total
pressure at the base of footing due to weight
of the superstructure weight offooting
weight of soil fill over the footing it is
termed as Gross pressure loading intensity

1 Net pressure Net Loading Intensity an

The deformation of soil below the base of the
footing is caused only by the pressure over
above that which existed before the
construction of the footing of the
superstr cture
 The difference between the gross pressure the
Over burden pressure at the base of footing
is termed as net pressure or net loading
intensity
an 9g Y Df
an 9g Y Df If water table effect
is also considered
c

Af Area of
footing
s
s
Qe Weight of
Columnabove
GL DLT LL

Qc Wt this
9g
At

Ciii Ultimate Bearing Capacity au

If the load at Base of footing is Gradually
increased a stage will be reached when the
load will cause the shear failure of the
supporting soil
 The maximum Gross pressure intensity of the
loading that the soil can support before it
fails in shear or minimum gross pressure
inte sity
of the loading at which soil fails inShear
is termed as Ultimate BearingCapacity
Ultimate BearingCapacity of the soil is not only
related to the properties of soil but also to the
characteristics of footing such as its size shape
depth mode of loading whether loading
is applied axially or eccentrically

Iv Net Ultimate
Bearing Capacity anu
The maximum net intensity of loading at the
base of the foundation that the soil can
support before failure in shear
It is difference of Ultimate Bearing Capacity
Overburden pressure
9nF Eu Y Df
Anu qu Y Dy If water table effect
is also considered

Net Safe Bearing Capacity ans

I is the maximum net intensity of loading
that the soil can safely support without the
risk of Shear failure
 I of h
It is obtained bydividing an u by desiredfactor
of safety F
Usually as factor of safety of 2.5 3 is Used

9ns 9,1
Ci Gross Safe Bearing Capacity as
It is the maximum gross intensity of loading
that the soil can safely support without
failing in shear
9s 9ns Y Df
9ns 9u YDt
F

as Dt Y Dt
94,7
Note since the additional term due to self
we ght
of soil MDT is available in full depth
is presentfrom past history it seems
logical rational not to use factor of
safety for this term
It is preferred to use only net safe
Bearing
capacity in calculation instead of Gross safe
Bearing Capacity
Vii Net Safe Bearing Pressure ans
It is maximum net intensity of loading that
can be allowed on the soil without the
Settlement exceeding the permissible value
No factor of safety is to beapplied in this as
it is already included in permissible value of
settlement

Viii Allowable
Bearing pressure aan et
It is the maximum net intensity of loading
that can be imposed on Soil with no
possibil ty
of shear failure or settlementfailure
Hence it is the smaller of net Safe Bearing
Capacity Shear failure criterion net safe
Bearing pressure settlement criterion
9 a net Anse Ensp min

Note It is often confusing to come across varied

terminology in different literature even
in code of practice
But the terminology used here is logical
rational
In IS 6403 allowable bearing pressure is
is named as allowable bearing capacity but
bearing capacity is associated with only
shear failure criterion
Choice of Net allowable Bearing pressure
For a safe design of a footing the loading
intensity at the base of the foundation should
be less than allowable bearing pressure
It can be net or gross allowable pressure
It is conventional also convenient to use
net allowable bearing pressure in the
prop rtioning
of footing due to following season
It is logical to compare the net allowable
Bearing Pressure with net loading intensity lie
the loading intensity at the base of footing
in excess of loading intensity to which it
was Originally subjected
Where the excavated soil in the trench is back
filled after construction of footing column
the net loading intensity is the Gross loading
intensity minus loading intensity due to Back
fill soil
If there is no backfilling of soil after foundation
of structure is incorporated in Basement floor
 like in case of raft Mat the soil is excavated
upto the level of Base of raft Here the gross
loading intensity is only due to structural load
self weight of raft does not include the
weight of soil above the foundation
In Such Case net loading intensity would get
seduced even become Zero

Ii Another season for Using net

allowable Bearing
pressure in design of footing subjected to
superimposed load Qc upto Ground level
It consists column load in soil below the
Ground level equal to the weight of soil

Qg Qc Wtt Ws
Area of footing A Gg
9 agross
Assuming the footing to be square of size B
 BE Qg
99 gross
B Qc T W St W f
Ea gross
Here Wf B2DcYc Ws Dt Dc 13 Y

B Qc B Dc Yet BRDt Dc Y
Ea gross

The above equation can be Used provided Wf

Ws are known
Wf Ws cannot be calculated Unless depth
of foundation Dt size B is known
Depth of foundation can be selected by Codd
provision but still calculation of size B of
footing would require trial error approach
However this problem can be eliminated by
using net loading intensity net pressure
Ong Qc Wtt Ws

99 9 YET YE
9g 92 Dc Yet Df Dc Y
 Dc Ye 7 Dt Y
9g 12
9g Dt 7 Dc Yc Y
92
Here Eg Dt 7 En
En Dc Yc y
92
Maximum value of 7 24 26 KN m3 7 19 21KN m
If Yc is assumed to be equal to Y then
an 952

for safedesign of footing net loading

inten ity
must be less than net allowed Bearing
pressure
9ns 9a.net
952 Ea net

B Qc
9a.net

Since there is no Unknown there in RHS this

approach is more preferable for proportioning
of footing
Ifthe foundation is not backfilled as in case
of Raff Mat then

9g 9,2 Dc Yc t Ye

En 9g Df Y
9h Det E Me Df Y
9
since De t Df Dc t can be
neglected
En 92 Dj y

It be analysed that if Back

can
filling is not
done net loading intensity is seduced by
Overburdened pressure due to Df Y it may
also be seduced to Zen when DAY
Oz
ie when weightof soil excavated is equal to
Sate Structural Load
This principle is Used Behind designing of
floating Balancing compensated raft footing
Further for safe design of footing
an 19 a net 952 Df Y I 9a.net

2
I 9a.net Df Y
It be referred that load
can
carrying capacity
of foundation is considerably enhanced when
foundation trench is not backfilled

Modes of Shear failure

When a horizontal strip footing is subjected to
the Gradually increasing load it undergoes
characteristic settlement
This settlement behaviour is found to be
rela ed
to the soil properties
The soil zones involved in Generatingresistance
to foundation toad that is responsible for
Bearing capacity have been identified
Qual
Three different types
tatively
failure mechanism
of based
on pattern of shearing zones have been
as followsident fied
I General Shear failure
It is typical of soils possessing brittle type
stress strain behaviour medium dense sand
This mode of failure is found in Shallow
in foun ation
very dense medium dense sand
It has well defined failure pattern
Stress Zone in this case extend upto Ground
surface
A sudden failure accompanied by tilting of
fou dation
is observed in this case
A bulging of ground adjacent to the foundation
takes place
Before failure settlement would be small
load settlement curve indicates that failure is
abrupt ultimate load can be easily located

Good
E Punching Shear Failure
It Occurs in soils possessing the Stress Strain
characteristics of very plastic soil
It is found in shallow foundation in loose sand
Ncc in deep foundation
It has poorly defined shear plane
Soil Zones beyond Loaded area is not little
affected
Significant penetration settlement of wedge
sha ed
soil Zone beneath the foundation is observed
accompanied by vertical shear beneath edges
of foundation
The load settlement curve indicates a
continu us
increase in settlement with increasing toad
Ultimate load cannot be clearly identified
III Local Shear Failure
Its pattern has some of the characteristics of
Both general and Punching shear failure
Mainfailure of local Shear failure is its well
defined wedge slip surface only beneath the
foundation
Slip surface not visible beyond the edges of the
foundation
Slight bulging of the Ground surface adjacent
to the foundation may be Observed
Significant settlement of soil directly beneath the
foundation takes place
The local settlement curve does not indicate
Ultimate load Clearly
Soil possessing plastic stress strain propertiesfail
in this mode eg loose sand

Iir
Note Guidelines to identify mode of failure
General Local
Sand
Frictional Angle O 7360 2280
SPT.NO 730 25
Relative Density 7700 4300
Void ratio 0.55 70.75

Clay
Ucs 7100 KNm2LSOKNm2

Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

1 Position
of Groundwater table
1 Type of soil its physical average properties
Y C 0
 Type of foundation Strip Square Circular
Lid Size of footing depth width
Nature of Ground surface horizontal or
incl ned
di Type of loading concentric eccentric
Vii Initial Stress on Soil Normal or Overansoli
dated
Ciii Type of shear failure General Punching local

Methods to Determine Bearing Capacity

It can be Analysed by any
of the following
Analytical static method
ii Codal Provision Various
building codes are
Published by Codat Agencies like BIS NBC
IRC c PWD etc in which bearing Capacity of
Zonal Soil is Published which can be Used
directly for rough Analysis
Iii Field method
Plate load test PLT
standard Penetration test SPT
Cone Penetration test CPT
I Rankine's Method
I Considered the equilibrium of two soil
elements one immediately below the
found tion
element I the other just beyond the
edge of footing element II but adjacent to
element I
When the load on footing increases approaches
Ultimate Bearing Capacity au a state of
plastic equilibrium is reached under the
footing
For the shear failure of element I element I
must also fail by lateral thrust from element I
During the state of shear failure Plastic
equi ibrium
the analysis can be done as follows
9 03 tan24 2 C tan a

for Cohesionless soil C O

G 03 tank

e
 for element I which is in active state of
equilibrium
qu ou
Oz Th
Eu R tank i

forelement I which is in passive state of

equilibrium
r Oh
03 Ou Y Df
on 7Df tank Ii
From D CD
9u Y Df tank
or

au YD
IS
Note In the effective stress Analysis qu is given
by
au Y'D it Sind
I sing

This Analysis can also be Used to find the

minimum depth of foundation as follows
 Dtmin 97 4 1,8
This theory is Only applicable to cohesionless soil
Effect of width size of footing is not
considered
If Df 0 then 9 0 Which is not practical
I Fellenius Theory
It is Based on plastic theory is applicable
for Only pure cohesive Soil days
In this theory the rupture plane failure plane
is assumed to be an arc of circle general
shear failure is considered

II Terzaghi's theory
It is an improvement over Prandtle's theory
Prandtle considered the base of the footing
to be smooth whereas Terzaghi considered the
Base to be Rough

Assumptions in Terzaghi Theory

Foundation is shallow Dt E B
1 Base of foundation is rough
 iii Footing is continuous strip L B It means
analysis in 2D along width depth
Iv At the time of failure soil reaches into plastic
stage
V Failure is General Shear failure
Vi The Stress Zone of soil extends upto the
foundation level only but not upto the Ground
level
W The Shear resistance of soil above the
foundation is ignored it means only base
resistance is considered while side resistance
is ignored

Note i It is the main season due to which this

theory is not applicable for deep foundation
Viii The soil above the Base of foundation is
removed replaced by an equivalent
surcharge E YD f
Ix The load is Vertical Concentric Note of
load is eccentric Meyerhoff's theory is Used
x Ground Surface is horizontal foundation is
also horizontal
Ki Water table is beyond the Zone of influence
of stress hence it does not effects the
capacity Bear ng
This theory is based on the limiting equilibrium
approach where in the forces acting on soil
wedge immediately beneath the foundation are
examined for static equilibrium condition the
Ultimate bearing capacity is determined

The Base of footing being rough when the

footing sinks into the soil a certain portion of
soil i e soil wedge adb immediately beneath
the footing is prevented from Undergoing any
lateral movement by friction adhesion
between the Base of footing and the soil
The wedge of soil ad b is termed as ZONE I
and remain in a state of ELASTIC EQUILIBRIUM
is effectively a partof the footing itself
At failure the vertical downward movement of
the footing the intact soil wedge adb
pus es
the soil on either side of elastic wedge
transforms it into a state of plastic equilibrium
In Zone II where soil is in plastic equilibrium
it is termed as Zone of Radial Shear
One set of shear plane in these Lone radiate
from the edge of footing the curved lower
Boundary of these Zone has shapeof a circle
for cohesive soil logarithmic spiral for c d
soil
Zone III is termed as Rankine passive Zone of
linear shear in which the two sets of shear
plane are inclined at angle of 0 450 02
to the horizontal
The lower Boundary ad bd of the elastic
wedge are failure plane rising at angle of 0
to the horizontal
The failure surface de f def are taken to be
vertical at 0
 tM

The footing cannot break into the Soil Until the

passive resistance of soil masses is Overcomed
The inclined face ad or bd can be considered
as a rough back of rigid wall with Shear
parameters C 0
At failure I Fy O
xB
9u B 1
YG XEtan4 2Pp t 2C Sino
c cx ad X 1 C 13 2
cos0

qu B 2Pp BC tan d YB tang

1
Notec The total passive resistance Pp on the
ad Surf ce
bd is made Upto 3 Components
Ppg produced by weight of soil in shear Zone
assuming the soil to be cohesionless c o
neglecting the surcharge
1 Ppe produced due to soil cohesion assuming soil
to be weight less 7 0 and neglecting the
surcharge
iii Ppg produced by the surcharge assuming soil
to be cohesionless Weightless C O 7 0

1.7Band
Eu 13 2 Ppy Ppc Ppg Be tan G

Assuming 2Ppy 713 tano BX X BNy

I L
2Ppc BCtend B X C Ne
2Ppg BX Nq

9uB BE Nc B g N qt Y B Ny
L
9u C Nc TEN qt BY Ny
L
I II III
qu CNC YDfNg L.BYNY
 Y in II term is for soil above the base of
footing
Y in III term is for soil below the base of
footing
C is unit cohesion for soil below the footing
Ne Na Ny are bearing Capacity factors
which depends upon friction angle o of soil
tan0
No tan 450 02 Ng get
7 N
Ny 1.8 tan 0 Nq 1
No Coto Na 1

Note For Pure Clay 0 0

No I
Ng I
Ny O
Ne 5.7 As per L Hospital suite
qu 5.71 717 1 0.5 B 710
qu 5.7C 7 Df
anu gu Y Dt 5.7C 7 Dt YDf

any 5.7C

The net Ultimate Bearing Capacity of pure

cohe ive
soil is independent of its size depth
 The Bearing Capacity q in Terzaghi Prandtl
theory is same with difference in only Bearing
Capacity factor
eg for Pure clay as per Prandtl theory
Nc 5.14
Ngs
Ny O

Modification for Different shape of the footing

a For
strip footing qu CNctqnq 0.5B.Y.my
b for Square footing qu 1.3CNctqnqto4 BY Ny
for Circularfooting que1.3CNctqNqt 0.3.137Ny
for rectangular Raftfooting
1 02 B BYNy
9u 1 0.313
L
CNctqNq L L

strip square Circular

Rectang lar
Raft
So I 1.3 13 I 0.313
L
1 I I
sq
Sy I 08 0.6 1 0.213

Ii Modification
for shear failure
Terzaghi's theory is applicable for general shear
failure
 No theoretical solution is available for local
Punching shear failure
Punching shear failure is very Uncommon Since
footing are rarely place on very loose sand
local Shear failure is however common
In case of footing on loose sand or soft days
where local shear failure can take place
shearing resistance is not mobilised alongthe
entire length of failure surface as observed in
general shear failure
Terzaghi proposed empirical adjustments to
Shear strength parameters c 4 to cover the
case of local shear failure
Shear strength parameters Cm dm must be
Used in bearing Capacity equation Bearing
capacity factors are determined on basis of Om
tandm tan0
Cm
3 C
3
Hence
qu 3
CNc qNg t 0.3 BY Ny
Ciii Modification due to water table level

au Y Df Nat 0 5 BY Ny
Gg Ii Iii

Case i when water table is in Zone I i e 2 B

Water table level below the Zone of influence
of stress
Water table in this Zone has no influence on the
bearing Capacity hence no change in Bearing
Capacity is introduced i e terms I Ii Iii
remains Unaffected
Case I when water table is in Zone II at
depth of 22 below the foundation
O E 22 1 13

In this case terms i lid of bearing Capacity

equation will be affected whereas term ID will
remain Unaffected

To account for water table effect either use

effective parameters d d effective unit
Weightof the soil or Use water table correction
factor
Generally effect on C d is neglected in
absence of data doesnot given but effect on
Unit weight of soil is accounted i e effect on
first term is negative
In absence of data C I C
O I
0
Effective Parameters Water table correction
factor
que CNd 7Df
Ng't 9u C Ne YDyNg't
0.5B MeNy 05 B Ry YaNy
7 22.7 13 22 Y Ya 22.7 B 22.7sat
B B
 Nai Na Ry 2

If 22 13 Yc Y
qu CNctYDfNq If 22 0,79 MsatRy
0 5 BYNY
If22 0 70 7 qu C'Nc YDfNq
qu c'Nc 7DtNq 0.51324 Kat NY

Caselli when water table is in Zone II ie

at the depth 2 from Ground level
0 23 SDF
In this case all three terms of Bearing capacity
equations ii iii will be affected but effect
on Ist term is negligible
Here also either use effective parameters or
water table correction factor

Effective Parameter Water table Correction

Factor
que'Nd YeDtNq't 9u dNdt RqYa D Nq't
0.5 BY Ny 0.5137 Ny

Ye 237 0 23771 79 237 0 23 sat

Df Df
 If 23 0 Ye 71 Rat 21 It
33
Qu C Nd t Y DfNg't
0.5 BY N y If 23 0 Ya Msat
Ratty
If 23 D t Ye Y que C NdTIMSat
Qu C Nd YDSN qt DjNg
0.5 BY N y
0.5 BY Ny I
If 23 Dt Ya Y
Rq L
qu C Nc YDSN qt
0.5 BY N y

Special case
for cohesionless soil c o i e sand
qu CNC TY Dt Nat 0.5 BY Ny
gu Y Df Nat 05 BY Ny

If Water table rises to the Ground level

Qu Y'D Ngl 05 BY N y
01
Usat DtNa 0.5 Ny
9u Lsat
In cohesionless Soil Ultimate Bearing Capacity is
proportional to depth Dt width of foundation
B
Due to rise in water table level upto Ground level
 Ultimate BearingCapacity approximatelyseduces
to half

For Pure Cohesive Soil 0 0 i e

Clay
Nc 5.7 Na I Ny O
gu CN et YDIENqt 0.5 BY NY
qu 5.7C Y Df

Ifwater table rises to the Ground level

qu 5.70 Y Dy 9nF 5.7C TY Dt Y Dy 5.7C
Anu 5.7C

The Ultimate Bearing Capacity of foundation

placed on Clay is independent of width size of
foundation but is dependent on its depth Dt
Net Ultimate bearing Capacity is nearly
unaffe ted
by rise of water table to the Ground level
GIJSKEMPTON THEORY
This theory is Partly Based on field observation
partly on laboratory test Partly on
Analysis theoret cal
It is suitable for pure cohesive soil day
It can be applied for both shallow footing as
well as deep footing
In this theory base resistance and side
both are consideredresi tance
The net ultimate bearing capacity is given as

Gnu one

where
c unit cohesion
Ne SKempton bearing Capacity factor
which depends upon ratio
Dg
Case I If 0
Dt
Footing Strip Square Circular Raft
Rectangular
No 5 6

Case Ii If D 22.5

Footing Strip Square Circular Raft

Rectangular
No 9.5 9
 Caselli if OLD 2.5

Footing Strip Square Rectangular Raft

Nc 511 611 0.217,1 511 1 0213
021 0.21 L

Note Unlike Terzaghi's theory SKempton's can

apply at any depth
9

E MEYERHOF'S THEORY
It is the most Generalised theory available to
find the bearing capacity as it gives
compre ensive
analysis for bearing parameters
The failure mechanism in this is similar to that
of Terzaghi but it considered failure surface that
extended above the foundation level hence
Shearing Resistance of soil above the base of
foundation is also taken into account
Ultimate bearing Capacity for shallow foundation
in this case is given by
au dying
YEScdcictqygsqdaiqtey.gs

Here Nc Nq Ny Meyerhof bearing Capacity

are
factorsame as proposed by Prandtl
Ng ettandtan21450 02
Ne Nq DCoto
Ny Nq 1 tan 1 401

Here s d i are shapefactor depth factor

inclination factor for each of Bearing Capacity
term respectively given as

Factors Expressions
Sc Sq Sy 1 for strip footing
Sc 1 ton2 450 92
021
Sq Sy 1 0.1 B tan445402

for 4 100 and I for 0 0

de 450
0.23 tan
1
9
dq dry 1 0 I tan 450
B 9
for 07100 1 for 0 0
Ic iq 1 d is in degree
4
in 1
4
Here B refers to the width or diameter of
foundation
The inclination factor i takes into account the
effect of inclination of load on Bearing Capacity
a is the inclination of the resultant force
from the Vertical i e a tan H v
Meyerhof also recommends that in case of
strip rectangular footing involving plain
strain value of gps is determined from the
triaxial test should be converted to plain
Strain as follows
 Ops
0.112 Otr
1.1

Meyerhof introduced the concept of Useful

width to compute the bearing Capacity when
the resultant load on footing eccentrically
with respect to centre of the footing
To account for eccentricity of loading the
footing dimensions are modified in Such a way
that becomes concentric to the reduced
dimensions of the footing
For a strip footing if the load hag an
eccentr city
ex in direction of width a modified width
B is used in place of B in Bearing Capacity
equation in the determination of shapeand
depth factory
B B Lex

In there can be eccentricity

a rectangularfooting

of loading in direction of both width length

equal to en key
In Such Case reduced dimension B L are
Used in place of actual dimension
B B L en
L L L
Ey
 The effective area A for the purpose of the
Calculation of total Vertical load Q is given by
CA B XL

CT IS CODE RECOMMENDATION FOR BEARING

CAPACITY IS 6403
Is code recommends that for computation of
Ultimate Bearing Capacity c a shallow
found tion
in general shear failure following
is Used equa ion
9nF CNCScdcic q Nq 1 Sq dqiqt
0.5 BYNySydy iz W

Here Ne Na Ny are bearing Capacity factors

recommended by Vesic
 et tan 9
Ng tan4450 0 2
Ny 2 Nati tano
No Nq 1 Coto

Here w is water table correction factor it is

equivalent to Rot
W 1
2,3

Zz is measured from base of foundation

Y in third term is Yang
The influence of water table is taken care in
second term of Bearing capacity equation by
taking q as effective surcharge at the level
of base of the footing
The slope depth inclination factors are
as follows

Factors Expressions
Se It
0.212 for rectangle
1 3 for Square Circle
Sq It 0.2 B for rectangle

7.2 for Square Circle

 Sy 1
0.412 for rectangle
0.8 for Square 0.6 for Circle
do it 0.2 tan 450
Bit 1
dq dry it 0.1
Pg
tan 450
1 for 0 100

I for 0210
ic iq t d in degrees

2
in l
g
In local failure the recommendations are
Same as of Terzaghi theory
Cm C I tandm ton d
3 3
For cohesive soil net Ultimate Bearing Capacity
of a footing immediately upon Construction
lou o is given by
Gnu CuNc Scdc ic
Here Nc 5.14 the Undrained Shear strength
Cu is obtained either from Unconfined Compres
sire strength test or from co relation with
point resistance value obtained from static cone
penetration test
Cu varied between for NCC
9g 9
between occ where qu is point
gg gg for resistance

Comparison of Bearing Capacity Factors

i Nc Nq 1 Coto
Nq et tend tan4450 02
If 4 0 No 5.14 instead of 5.7 given by
Terzaghi
The above two equations have been adopted by
Terzaghi peck
Meyerhof
Hansen
Vesic
BIS

Ii NyNq D tan 1.40 Meyerhof

Ny 1.5 Nq 1 tano Hansen
Ny L Nq 1 tond Vesic
Ny 1.1 Nq 1 tan 1.301 Spangler Hardy
Note Ny factor has the widestrange of values for
any N factor
In General 38 I Ny I 192 for 0 400

Q A Strap footing is to be provided for two

Columns as shown

WIN 883MW of Miff side

ring width
of both footing as 3.5m Safe Bearing
Capacity of soil as 350 KN m
a 2m b 2.5m C 3.5m d 2.95m
Note The Strapfooting is considered to be shift
transferring the column loads with equal
Uniform Soil pressure Under Both footing
IM R2 0 I Fy D
3000 7 1217 1.27 0 3000 4500 R REO
R 3620.7 KN R2 3000 4500
3620.7
 122 3879.3 KN

Qu 11 4 3620.7 2.95 m
3.5 350

9u 132 L2 3879.3 3 167 m

3 5 350

Q In aBraced vertical excavation of 5m height

2.5m width in a cohesive soil having un
drained cohesion 20 KN m2 75 20 KN m3
What is the Fos Against heave failure at Base
Sol DE 2.5
2

Dpt 2.5

for No failure an 9ns

YH F CNC
9,1 YH
F 2 1 14
15 0.213
Q An embankment is to be constructed with a
Granular soil 7 20 kN m3 on a Saturated
Clayey Silt deposit und rained Shear strength
25 kPa Assuming and rained general shear
failure Bearing Capacity factor of 5.7
Compute the max height of the embankment
at point of failure
Sol an YH 204 KN m
gnu CNE 25 5.7 142 5 KN m2
At point of failure Fos F 1
For Safe designing an I 9ns 42017 142.5
H 7 125 M

Q A building hasto be supported on a Rcc raft

foundation of dimensions 14m X 21 m The
subsoil is clay which has an average
Uncon ined
compressive strength of 0.15 kg am The
pressure on the soil due to the weight of
building bad that it will carry will be Ktm
at the Base of raft If the Y of excavated soil
is 1.9 t m3 at what depth should the bottom
of raft be placed to provide a Fos of 3
against shear failure
Sol 14 t m 2 an 14 7 Df
9g
a nu CN c 5 1140.2
018 103 BE X
1
021
0.75 5 1 1 0.2 124
021,4

4.25 0 06
Df
9ns 9,14 9.25 0.06 Df 1 4165 0.02 Df
3
For safedesign of footing an 19ns
14 1 9Df 1.4165 0 02 Df 3 Df 6.56 m

Q A Square footing of 2m Sides rests on the

surface of a homogeneous soil bed having
the properties C 24 kpa 0 250 7 18 kN m
Terzaghi Bearing capacity factory for 0 250
are Nc 25.1 Nq 27 1 Ny 9.7 Nc 14.8
Nq 5.6
Ny 3.2
Compute the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of the
foundation
Sol qu 1.30 C Nd t qNg t 0.4 BY Ny
C 23 C
 1.3 X 24 14.8 0 0.4 2 18 3.2
qu 3
9u 353.9 KPa

Q A raft foundation 12m long is to

10m wide
be constructed in a clayey soil having shear
Strength of 12 KN m2 Y of Soil is 16KN m3
The Ground Surface carries a surcharge of
20 KN m2 105 7.2 Nc 5.7 Find the
Safe depth of foundation
q q
t t t t t t

Sol au ITO 3 CNC YDS 9 Nat

E
1 0.5 B Y
Ny
0.212

94 1 0.3 10121 1245.7 16 0 20

qu 105.5 16Df kN m

9nF Gu YD f 105 5 KN m2
9ns 87.91
97 10,525
 for safe design 9ns 9ns
Y Df 9ns
Df 87.91 5.49 m
16

III FIELD METHOD

Plate load test Is 1888
The test was designed to determine modulus
of subgrade reaction which is used in design
ing of rigidtestPavement
to
It is field determine the Ultimate
Bearing capacity of soil and probable
settlement under a given loading
The test essentially consists of loading a
rigid plate at foundation level determining
the settlement Corresponding to load
incre ent
The Ultimate Bearing is then taken at the load
at which the plate starts sinking at a rapid
rate
This method assumes that down to the depth
of influence of stresses the soil strata is
sesonably Uniform
 Bearing Plate The bearing is either square
a

or circular made of mild steel of not less

than 25 mm thickness size ranging from
300 750 mm
Small size plate is used for dense stiff soil
Whereas large size plate is Used for loose
Soft soils
The size of plate shall be at least 4 times the
maximum size of the soil particles present
at test location

Test pit The test pit usually at foundation

level must have normally width equal to
fivetimes the size of the test plate
The test pit should preferably have steps to
go into the pit for setting marking reading
Loading Arrangement The loading to the test
plate may be applied with the help of a
hydraulic Jack The reaction of the
hydra lic
Jack can be taken by any of two methods
Gravity loading method
Reaction truss method
 When load is applied to the plate it sinks to
settle where settlement of plate is measured
with the help of at least two dial gauges
Which are mounted on independent datum bar
No support of loading platform should be
locked within a distance of test plate from its
centre

d Setting
of plates The test plate shall be placed
over a fine sand layer of max thickness 5mm
so that the centre of plate coincides with the
centre of the reaction girders beam
A minimum Seating pressure of 0.7 t m2 Shall
be applied removed before starting the load
test

e load Increments Apply the load to soil in

Comulative equal increment upto lot m2 or
I
of the estimated Ultimate BearingCapacity
Whichever is less

f Settlement Observation Settlement should

be observed for each increment of load as
interval of 1 2.25 4 6.25 9 16,25 mins
 these after at
every one hour interval to the
nearest of 0.02mm
In case of Clayey Soils the time Settlement
curve shall be plotted at each load stage
load shall be increased to next stage either
when the curve indicates that the settlement
has exceeded 70 80 of Probable Ultimate
Settlement or at the end of 24 hour period
For soils other than Clay rate of settlement
get appreciably reduced to a value
0.02 mm min
The next increment of load shall then be
applied observation is repeated
The test shall be continued till a settlement of
25mm or 50 mm extreme special Case Such as
in dense Gravel Gravel Sand mix is
or till obtai ed
failure whichever is earlier
When Settlementdoesnot reach 25mm the test
should be continued to atleast two times the
estimated design pressure

g load Settlement Curve Ultimate Bearing

Capacity
A load settlement curve is blotted out to
 arithmetic Scale Standard nature of which for
different soils is as follows
A loose to medium Cohesionless Soil
B Cohesive Soil
C Partially Cohesive Soil
D Dense Cohesive Soil

aaaa

curve A Is typical for loose to medium

cohe ion
less soil which is straight line in early
stages but flattens out in later stage and
there is no clear point of failure

Curve B Is for cohesive soil which is not Quite

 Straight in early Stages leans towards settlement
axis as the settlement increases

Curve c Possess Characteristics of Both curve

A B

Curve D Is for Pure dense Cohensionless Soil

Note for curve B D no difficulty is experienced
in observing ultimate Bearing capacity as
the failure is well defined

However in case of curve A C where yield

point is not well defined settlement curve is
plotted on Semi log scale
IS Code does not specify any Fos hence in
Order to determine the Safe Bearing Capacity
it is taken as 2 2.5
 a
at

our

way

Determination of Ultimate Bearing Capacity as

Per Shear Criteria
Case A For Clays In Clays bearing Capacity is
approximately independent of width of footing
hence
auf 9up

que Ultimate Bearing Capacity for footing

qup Ultimate Bearing Capacity for plate which
is determined from load intensity Vs
Settlement Curve
 Case B for Sand In Sandy Soil bearing Capacity
is proportional to the width of the footing

auf 9up B
94213

Bf Width of footing
Bp Width of Plate

Note To Compute Safe Bearing Capacity Fos of

2 2.5 is applied over Bearing Capacity
computed above

Determination of safe settlement pressure using

PLT as per settlement Criteria
let Sf be the Permissible settlement of footing
prescribed by Codal agencies then by Using
following empirical relation
Bt Bp 0.3
for dense Sand
If Bp Bf 03

Bp Bf is in m

Sfp Btp for days

 nt
for silt n o 5
Sfp
Ip
Using above relationship for a particular soil
find the permissible settlement of the plate sp
and then Using load intensity settlement curve
read the safe Bearing pressure for the plate
qup which is further Used to find safe Bear
ing pressure for footing aug by use of
following relationship
Eaf Gap for Clay
Eat Eap Bf for Sands
Bp
gaf allowable bearing pressure for footing
gap allowable bearing pressure for plate

Note The above computed pressure is allowable

pressure or safe pressure in which further
Fos is not required because permissible
settlement for footing given by is code is
Safe settlement

Q The load settlement curve data from a plate

load test for Sandy soil are as follows
load Hm2 10
settlement mm as
38.5 59 8.5 38
 9
The size of plate Used was 0.8m X 0.3m
Dete mine
the size of Square Column footing to
Carry a load of 250 t with a maximum
Settlement of 25 mm
Sol since Bf is not known
let Bf 1 5m
2 111.11 t m
Gut 12
9up 9up 22.22 t m
quf Bff
Settlement from table for 22.22 t m2 load
by interpolation
Sp 11 I I mm
St 30.83mm
13 431,1 3 25 mm

Redesign
Increase Bp in ratio of 30.83
25

Bf 1 54
302.41 1 67 m 94 250
1 672
89.64Hm

16.1 Hm 2 from table Sp 7855 m

qup
St 22.58 mm 225 mm
Housel Approach to find Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
According to Housel the failure load is function
of area and perimeter of plate foundation
it is also influenced by soil properties
In this method PLT is conducted on two rigid
e
plates of different size at same Df
let A P be a sea Perimeter of the Ist
plate Q is failure load on Ist plate then
Q A m Rn lil
Where m and n are constants which depends
on type of soil
Let Az Pa be area Perimeter of 2nd plate
and Q2 is failure Ultimate load on 2nd plate
corresponding to the given settlement
Q2 Arm Pan I
From D ID m I n are computed
If a sea of footing is Af Perimeter of
footing Pf then Ultimate load of failure of
foundation
Qf Af m t Pf n
Ultimate Bearing Capacity auf
If
Some of the most important considerations which
need to be taken care of are as follows
In no case shall a test plate smaller than 30
on can be Used because load settlement
Behaviour of soil is qualitatively different
for smaller width of test plate
It can be shown for settlement equation ex
settlement of a foundation can not exceed about
four times the settlement of plate of 30 con
width howsoever large is the width may
be hence this equation is valid Only for
medium to dense Sand
If the soil at site is not homogeneous upto
a large depth relative to the size of footing
this test gives misleading result It would
give much smaller settlement than actual
Hence plate load test must be supplemented by
adequate soil exploration through Borehole
Which may reveal any non homogeneity of
strata upto a depth of 1.5 2 times the width
of foundation

sighfearing
Pressure
 The effect of Capillarity in sand bed is to
incr ase
effective stress that would give less
Settlement than actual hence this test should
be performed at water table level if it is
within Im below the foundation
This test is short duration test hence is
suitable for Granular soil in which immediate
settlement can be taken as total settlementbut
not for cohesive Soil

Note If the load test is carried out above water

table the settlement computed from curve
will have to be corrected if there is
likel hood
of rise in water table in near future
Actual settlement Settlement from plate load test
Correction factor

PENETRATION TEST
These test involves the measurement resistance
to penetration of sampling spoon cone or
other shaped tools Under dynamic or static
loadings
The resistance is then empirically correlated
 with some of the engineering properties of
soil Such as density andex consistency
bearing capacity etc
The two commonly Used test are
Standard Penetration test
b Cone penetration test

a standard Penetration test IS 2131

This test is used to determine
Relative density density Index
Angle of Shearing resistance
Unconfined Compressive Strength
Pile load Capacity
Ultimate Bearing Capacity on the basis of
shear centre
Allowable bearing pressure on basis of
Settlement criteria

Note This test is suitable for medium to dense

Sand On days due to dynamic heading
excess bore
semoulding
may Occur
water pressure may set up whereas in
loose saturated sand liquifaction
may
Occur
This test is performed in a clean hole 55 to
150mm in diameter
A casing or drilling mud is used to support
the side of the hole
A thick wall split spoon Sampler 50.8 mm
Outer diameter 35mm inner diameter is
driven into the Undisturbed soil at the Bottom
of hole Under the blows of 63.5 kg drive
weight with 75 cm of free fall The minimum
open length of the sample should be 60cm
The split tube samples commonly known as
spoon sampler resting on bottom of the bore
hole is allowed to sink Under its own weight
It is then Seated 15 am with the blows of
hammer falling through a height of 75 em
Thereafter the spoon Sampler is further
driven by 30cm
The no of blows required to affect each 15cm
penetration is recorded
The first 15 am of drive may be considered to
be seating drive
The total no of blows required for second
third 15 cm of penetration is termed as
Penetration Resistance Number
 If the split spoon sampler is driven less than
45cm total then the penetration resistance
of last 30cm is considered
The entire sample may sometimes sink Under
its Own weight when very soft sub soil
stratum is considered encountered Under such
Conditions it may not be necessary to give
any blow to the sample SPT Value would
be indicated to Zero
SPT Valve is not considered in fraction
The test is replaced at
every 2m to 5 m
interval or at the Change of stratum
The Observed SPT Number may be required
to be corrected for the following
Overburden pressure correction
Lii Water table Dialatency fine's correction

i Overburden pressure Correction

In Granular Soil Overburden pressure effects
the penetration resistance
If two soils having same relative density but
different confining pressure are tested the one
with a higher confining pressure gives a
higher penetration number as the Confining
 pressure in cohesionless soil increases with
depth
The Penetration number for soil at shallow
depth is underestimated that at a greater
depth is Overestimated
For Uniformity the Numbers obtained from field
test Under different effective overburden press
use are corrected to a standard effective
Overburden pressure

Ni No 3 470 or
t.az soo
ro Effective Overburden pressure KN m2
The above correction is applicable for
8 I 280 kN m for dry or moist
sand

Note The N value for cohesionless soil corrected

for Overburden pressure as per PECK is
given by
N No Cn
Cn Normalising Correction factor
 on
Ratio of N No should be between 0.45 2

If this ratio is more than 2 then N should be

divided by 2 to obtain the design value used
in finding the bearing Capacity of soil
Overburden pressure correction is applied
first then dilatency correction is applied
Ii Dilatency correction
Silty fine sand fine sands below the water
table develops pose pressure which is not
easily dissipated
Pose pressure increases the resistance of soil
then penetration number N also increases
This correction is applied when the observed
Value of Number after first correction exceeds
15
N 2 15 21 N I5

This correction is required only when weight is

at or above the test level i e if weight is
below the test level this correction is not
required
Final corrected value of penetration number is
average of corrected value of Penetration
Number at different levels
N NAT N BT Nc t Nn
final n

If itis conducted at different level say A B

C D N the above analysis is done
At last check is applied that all the corrected
SPT Number should be in the limits as follows
Nfinal I 0.5Nfinal
 If any of the Value NA N B N n has more than
50 Variation on either side of final Nang
that Value is discarded average is found
from remaining values of SPT Number

_gpgpygLDipfaded

Q During the subsurface investigation for

des gn
of foundation a SPT is conducted at 4.5m
below ground surface The record of number
of blows is given below
Penetration depth em No of blows
O 75
75 15 3 discarded

15 22.5
12
22.5 30
 30 37.5 B
37.5 45
Assuming the water table at ground level soil
is fine sand and correction factor for
Overbu den
is I the corrected N value for soil is
Sol No 27 N NoCn N 27 1 27
Considering water table correction
N 2 15 27 15 N 2 21
12

Ultimate Bearing Capacity as per shear criteria

The final corrected
average SPT number is
related to the friction angle relative density
Which is further expressed either graphically or
in tabular form
Using fiction angle bearing Capacity factor
Nc Ma Ny can be determined hence
Ulti ate
capacity can be found using any of
Analytical theory
Relationship between SPT Value and Relative
Density is as follows
SPT N Value Relative Density
0 4 Very loose
4 10 loose
10 30 Medium
 30 50 Dense
50 Very Dense

as

to

Determination ofAllowable bearing pressure

Safe Bearing pressure as per settlementcriterion
Empirical relationship can be Used to find
allowable bearing pressure on the basis of SPT
Number

Peck Hanson Equation

The net allowable bearing pressure or net safe
settlement pressure is given by
 Canet 0.91 Cw S N KN my

Where
S Permissible settlement of foundation in
mm as given by Is code
N Final corrected
average SPTNumber
Cw Water table correction factor
Cw it Dw
D B

0.5 S C W S 1
O S Dw I Df B't bow

Note Here depth of water table is measured

from Ground surface
Ii Teng's Equation
The net allowable bearing pressure is given
by
14
132,033 S N
3 Cw Go kN m
ganef

Where's
permissible settlement mm
 B Width of the footing
N Final Corrected average SPT Number
Cp Depth correction factor
It D 2

Go Water table correction factor

Cw It D
L
0.5 I Cw I 1
Dt
0 I DW S B

EK B

Note Here Depth of water table is measured from

foundation level
Teng's equation also includes the effect of
depth in Combination of Safe Bearing pressure

IS Code Method
Is code recommends use of Teng's equation
with some modification to find safe Bearing
pressure for footing
Ganef 138 1310 3 S N 3 Go kN my
 Is code recommends use of Peck Hamson
eqBearing
to find safe ation
pressure for raft
Ganet 0.88CwNs KN my

For Permissible Settlement of 25mm

Ganet 22 CWM KN m2

If Water is much below the foundation level

9 a net 22 N KN m2

Note A raft ormat foundation covers the entire

plan area of the building

It is used when individual spread footing Cannot

be Used because of heavier load or due to
poor soil Condition or Both
Because of rigidity a raft tends to bridgeOver
local Soft pockets or any other heterogeneity of
soil irregularities tends to get even
below a raft distribut d
Due to these seasons a raft foundation suffers
much less differential Settlement than Isolated
footing
 Hence the safe Bearing pressure for a
raft
should be much higher than isolated footing
for same limit of differential Settlement or
total possible settlement for raft is almost
two times that of an isolated footing but still
differential settlement would be same
The allowable bearing pressure of raft is
always governed by settlement criteria as due
to its large size raft assures a very high safe
Bearing capacity

Unconfined Compressive Strength of cohesiveSoil

Consistency Eu kN my
very Soft Soft Medium Stiff Very Stiff Solid
SPT N Value 22 2 4 4 8 8 15 15 30 730
qu 225 25 50 50 100 100 200200 400 7400

Q Using Peck Hanson equation find net safe

Bearing pressure below the foundation for the
given situation Test is conducted at 1.5 m
interval and the observed value of SPT
number are 10 15 20 at depth of 1.5m
3m 4.5m respectively Yu lo kN m3
Sol ganef 0.416ns
Cw It Dw 1 3 1
1 13 151 1.5
5 40 mm
NoA 10
NOA NOA TA YHA 18 1.5
LEE L 7 KN m
N A 36.08
102350
27 70 1
NLA N A 36.08
NIA 36.08 3.60872
NOA 10
NA 36208 18.04 a

NOB 15 O'B Y H Ya HB 18 1.5 16 1.5

51 KN m
NIB NOB 350 93.38
813 70
NIB 2 N B
43238 21.69715
No B
N213 15 N B 15 18.345
12
Noc 20 R'C Y Ha 172413 73He 66 KN m
Nic Noc 5147
3,8 70
2 N C 25.75715
N1 512.47

N 2C 15 NC 15 20.365
21
Nfinal NAT NB Nc 18.04 18.345 20.365
3 3
18.91119
Check
Nfind I 0.5N final 1910.5 19
28.5 9.5
9.5 to 28.5

ganef 0.41 1 19 40 311.61 kN m

 Iii Static Cone Penetration test CPT
The static cone penetration test simply termed
as CPT is a simple test that is used in
place of SPT particularly for soft days
fine to medium sand deposits
This test is also termed as DUTCH CONE TEST
The test assembly consist of a cone with an
Apex Angle of 600 base area of 10cm
The Sequence of operations of Penetrometer are
ax follows
1 The cone
of the friction Jacket is in
statio ary
position
1 The cone is pushed into the soil
by the inner
rod to a depth of a'at a steady rate of
20mm Sec
The trip resistance go called cone or point
resistance is computed as Ec QA Where
Q is force read on pressure Gauge
CiDThe Sounding sod is pushed further to a
depth b This has effect of pushing both
friction jacket lone assembly together The
total force Qt required for this is again noted
The force required to push friction jacket Qf
is obtained as Qf QE Q
 The side or skin friction fs Qty Where Af
is surface Area of frictionjacket
Note a b are normally taken to be 40 mm
however their minimum value is 35 mm

a The Outside mantle tube is pushed down to

distance at b bringing cone friction
Jacket to Original position
The above procedure is continued till the
proposed depth of sounding is reached
CPT gives a continuous record of variation
of both friction resistance
cone resistance of
soil however it does not give yield value of
any Sample
Note It is unsuitable in gravel very dense sand
owing to difficulty in pushing the Cone
Data from CPT is used to calculate the point
Bearing resistance skin friction resistance of
pile foundation
In Granular Soil relationship between go
N is further established
 Type of Soil go N qc kg and
Sandy gravel or gravel 8 10
Coarse sand 5 10
Fine to medium sand 3 4
Silty sand 2

Further go N for fine silly medium loose to

medium dense sand is given by
ae 4 N

g can also be related with Un drained shear

strength of Clay Cu
Ec Nk Cut To
Where Nk Conefactor
so total Overburden pressure

a Settlement of Shallow Foundation

Total Settlement St in general case for any
type of soil is given by
St Sit So Ss
Immediate or elastic settlement Si which takes
place immediately or Over a short time approx
about 7 days after the load is place is termed
as Initial compression
In day it is also known as Distortion settlement
and is due to change in the shape of soil
Skeleton with any change in water content
In saturated day immediate settlement is
computed Using elastic theory
It is sometimes considered small compared to
the longer term Consolidation settlement hence
neglected
In granular soil immediate settlementaccounts
approves the entire Settlement
In inorganic clays primary consolidationaccounts
for most of settlement
In Organic soil secondary consolidation assumes
Greater significance
The theory of elasticity can be used to
determ ne
settlement caused by load acting over
flexible or
rigid area of different geometrical
shape and is given by
Si qB I Me If
Where Si Vertical settlement
B Width of foundation
µ Poisson's ratio
E
of elasticity
Young's Modulus
If Influence factor for settlement
which depends upon Shape
rig dity
of foundation
 Shape If If
Flexible Foundation Rigid
Centre Corner Average foundation
Circle I 0.64 0.85 0.86
Square 1.2 0.56 0.95 0.82
Rectangle 1.36 0.68 1.2 1.06
1.5
Liz

Settlement of rigid foundation such as beam

slab raft is approx equal to mean settlement
for corresponding flexible foundation
In a flexible footing the contact pressure ie
pressure at the interface between the footing
Soil is Uniformly distributed

A Uniform pressure produce a dish shaped

Pattern of displacement in day soil

For a rigid footing the Settlement is more or

less Uniform over the area of contact
Since a uniform contact pressure produces dish
shapedsettlement pattern the contact pressure
must be more nearthe edges of loaded area
less near the centre in order to produce
Uniform Settlement

Because of Variation in modulus of elasticity of

granular soil the immediate settlement cannot
be accurately found in such soils
In these soils E increases with confining pressure
and thus it increases with depth
Further E Varies across the width of the loaded
area it is more near centre than near edges
As a consequence the distribution of pressure will
be Uniform below flexible footing but
deform tion
will be inverted dish pattern
For a rigid footing where settlement is Uniform
the contact pressure is more near the centre
than near the edges

i
Note For rigid footing in Silt

Rigid

Note The elastic constants of the soil are determined

in the lab under condition of stress range
mode of deformation which are identical
with field observation

E n fordifferenttypes of soil be related

can
with SPT value and cone resistance value
empirically
According to Is 8009 the ratio of total
settl ment
of a rigid foundation to the total
settle ent
at the centre of flexible foundation is
Called Rigidity factor
A rigidity factor of 0.8 is recommended by
Code for computing the settlement of rigid
footing

Q The plan of a proposed heap is shown The heap

will stand on a thick deposit of soft day with
 E 15 MN m2 The Uniform pressure on Soil mass is
assumed as 150 kN m The immediate settlement
Under the point A at surface of soil is
con Take N 0.5

Value of Influence factor

Shape of loaded area flexible footing
rectangle LB at Comer It
I 0.56
15 0.68
20 077
5 1.05
10 126
100 1.69
Sol

E
1
Sia 9
12 Bi If i

150 40 0.77 4040.56 20X

159 3 077
 67 cm

0ALLOWABLE SETTLEMENT
Settlement can cause Cracks in masonry walls
and interior plaster walls of building
It can cause a structure to tilt which may
become noticable in high building or can
avoid the function of structure to fulfilled in
in many way
Settlement can be of different patterns under
different conditions the effect caused on the
structure will depend on the type of
settl ment
If the Structure Settles Uniformly it is not likely
to sufferdamage
A structure with a
very rigid raft or mat
foundation will experience Uniform settlement
A structure is said to undergo differential
settlement if one of its past settles more
than the others
The difference in total settlement between any
two points is called DIFFERENTIAL
SETTL MENT
Angular distortion is the ratio of differential
 Settlement between two columns 8 to the
between them e spac
distortion
ng
Angular of

The differential settlement may also lead to the

Uniform tilt when the entire structure rotates
as its consequences
structualf

ETERIAY Y as

osettlement
tent HEIST Hate
It is relatively easy to estimate the total
is settl ment
very difficult to estimate differential
settlement
In granular soils the minimum differential
settlement can in some cases be close to
max mum
total settlement whereas in day the
differential settlement is much less than total
settlement
Maximum differential settlement generallydoes
not exceed 75 of the maximum total
settlement in granular soil while in clay it
nearly exceeds 50 of maximum total
settlement
Higher total settlement is permissible in Clay
than in Sand
It is due to difference in rate of settlement
in Sand Clay
In Sand Settlement occurs almost immediately
on placement
of load while in Clay it takes time
thus there is time for structure resting on Clay
to adjust to differential settlements
In Sand the differential settlement occurs as
soon as total settlement thus leaving the
Structure no time for gradual adjustment
 In any Settlement analysis of all temporary
transient load have to be considered in
dete mining
the settlement in sand whereas in Clay
Permanent load can Cause Consolidation
Settlement is to be considered

Q A Square footing 2m X 2m is subjected to an

inclined point load P'as Shown The Water
table is located well below the base of footing
consider only one way eccentricity and Compute
the net safe load Capacity of the foundation
for Fos 3
Assume Capacity factors q Y
33.3 37.16
Bearing
Shape 1.314 1.314
Depth 1.143 7.113
Inclination 0 444 0.02

tap

30
on oat
my

0.0085m
gym
Sol
qu CNcscicdetqnqsqdq.iq
051317Nydysying

quo 1 18 35 1 314 1.113 0.4444

0.5 2.2 0.15 X18 371641.314 1.113 0.02

94 405.84 KN m

9nu 9u YDf 405 84 1 18 387.84 KN m2

9nF 387.84 129.3 KN m

3
Gns 9nF XA 129.3 2 4.7
438 55 KN
 ESE

Q A 30 on Square Bearing plate settles by

8mm in the plate load test on cohesionless
soil when the intensity of loading is 180 kN m
The Settlement of a shallow foundation of 1.5m
square Under the same intensity of loading
will be nearly
a 30 mm
b 26 mm
c 22 mm
d 18 mm
IES 2020

Ans C 22 mm
So1 Bp 30 an 0 3 m
Sp 8mm
Bf 15m
Settlement of foundation
Bt Bp to 3
Bp By to 3

15 10.3
0.332
03 1.5 0.3
Sf 22.22 mm
 I
Q A Raft foundation 10 m wide and 12m long is
to be constructed in a clayey soil having
Shear strength of 12 kN m Unit weight of soil
is 16 kN m3 the ground surface Carries a
Surcharge of 20 kN m2 the factorof Safety
is 1.2 and the value of Nc 5.7 The safe
depth of foundation will be nearly
a 8.2m
b 7 3 m
C 6.4 m
d 5.5 M
IES 2019

Is d 5.5m
So l

µ off
Heaving
t

Given 9 20 KN m 2 Cu Cu 12 KN m
Y 16 KN m3
B 10 M L 12 m
 Bearing Capacity of Soil for rectangular raft
footing in cohesive soil is given by
QF 1 0.312 c Nc Y Dtt q

1 0.3 142 12 5.7 1617 20

105.5 16Df

Base will occur when Qf 0

failure
Hence Df 105.5 6.59
16
minus sign indicates that it is excavation

Safe depth 6.59 5.49 m

pg 12

Q A Strip footing 2m in width with its base at a

depth of 15m below Ground surface tests
on a saturated day Soil with 7s at 20 KN m
Cu 40 KN m2 04 0 c 10 kN m2 and
O'u 200 The natural Water table is at I m
depth below Ground level As per Is 6403 1981
the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of this footing
will be taking the selerant Nc as 5.14
a 327 KN m
b 285 KN m
C 253 KN m
d 231 KN m
IES 2019

Ans d 231 KN m
Sol
Dw Im
Df 1.5m

B 2m

As per 156903 1981

que Sc dc iccnctsqdqiqqnq.ttByNy inSydney
for footing we consider end of construction
Stability
C Cu 40 kN m2 0 04 00

DJ L t do dq 1

for Strip footing

Sc Sq I
for 0 0 Nc 5.14 Nq 1 Ny 0
I Qu CNC CHXITY sub XO 5 X
Nq
94 90 5.14 20 20 9.81 XO 5 X1
230 695 KN m2 a 231 KN m
Assuming Yt Mat for Clay
 GATE

Q The Percent Reduction in the Bearing Capacity

of a strip footing resting on sand underflooding
Condition water level at the Base of thefooting
When compared to the situation where the water
level is at a depth much greater than the
width of footing is approximately
O
b 25
C 50
d 100
GATE 2018 Shift I

Ans C 50
Sol Ter
zaghi's Bearing Capacity equation
qu CN et qNq B Y Ny
I
for cohesionless soil C O footing resting on
Sand Surface So Df 0
When water level is at Base of footing
B Hub N
qu I
When water level is at much greaterdepth
 942 21BYt Ny

Percent reduction in Bearing capacity

qua que 100 y
94
Yt Msub
x
100
It
As Ysub 0 5 Yt
So percentage seduction 50

Q The Plate load test was conducted on a clayey

strata by Using a plate of 0.3m X 0.3 m
dim nsions
and the Ultimate load per Unit area
for the plate was found to be 180 kPa The
Ultimate Bearing Capacity in kPa of a 2m
wide square footing would be
27
b 180
C 1200
d 2000
GATE 2017 Set I

Ans b I so kPa
Sol
 Bearing Capacity of footing on purely cohesive
Soil does not depend upon Size of footing
9up quf for Clay
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of a 2m wide square
footing 180 kPa

Q A Circular raft foundation of 20 m diameter and

1 6 m thick is provided for a tank that applies
abearing pressure of 110 kPa on Sandy soil
with Young's Modulus Es 30 MPa and M 0.3
The raft is made of concrete Ec 304Pa and
M 0.15 Considering the raft as rigid the
elastic settlement is
50 96
b 53 36
C 63.72
d 66 71
GATE 2014 Set I

Ans b 53 36
Sol Elastic settlement of rigid footing
O S X q B 1 my
Es
0.8 710420 1 0.09
30 X 10 3
10 6
66.733 0.8
53.36 mm
 SSC JE

Q Match the type of test list 1 with the objective

the test list II
of
list I
A Standard Penetration test
B Hydrometer test
C Proctor test
D Vane test

list I
1 Grain Size Analysis
2 Shear strength
3
Bearing Capacity
4 Compaction

A 3 13 1 C G D 2
b A 3 B J C 2 D G
A 4 B 2 C 3 D 1
d A 2 B 1 C 4 D 3
2018 Morning session

Ans a A 3 13 1 C 4 D 2
Q A 300 mm Square bearing plate settles by 15mm
in plate load test on a cohesive soil when the
intensity of loading is 0.2 N mm The settlement
of a prototype shallow footing Im square
Under the Same intensity of loading is
a 15 mm
b 30 mm
50 mm
d 167 mm
2013

Ans I 50 mm
Sol Square Bearing plate Bp 300mm 0.3m
Size of the Square footing Bf Im
Settlement in Bearing plate Sp 15am

for clayey soit

Bt
y Bp
15
Sf of x

Sf 50mm
Q Which of the following has least BearingCapacity
a loose
Gravel
b Hard Rocks
c
Soft socks
d Compactgravel
2014 Morning Session

Ans a loose Gravel

Sol Hard rocks are Usually refers to igneous or
Metamorphic socks whereas softsocks are
Usually refers to sedimentary rocks

Bearing capacity of these are as follows

Igneous rocks metaphorpic rocks
Sedimentary rocks Compactgravel loose
gravel
 DEEP FOUNDATION

In Situation where soil is poor at shallow depth

in order to transmit the load Safely the depth
of foundation has to be increased till a
suitable soil stratum is met
In View of increased depth such foundations
is called DEEP FOUNDATION
Piles Pier well are examples of Deep foundation

Pile Foundation
A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft which
is driven or installed into the ground by
mean suitable
The piles are usually driven in groups to provide
foundation for structure
The Pile group may be subjected to vertical
loads horizontal loads or a combination of
both
Piles have been classified on the basis of the
following
i Material Used for construction
Timber pile
Steel pile
Concrete Pile
 Sand pile

Cross section
Circular Pile
Square pile
Hexagonal pile
I Section pile
H Section pile

Lili shape
Cylindrical pile
tapered pile
Under reamed pile

These piles are considered Useful in expansive

soil where the use of Shallow spread footings
is not feasible due to excessive shrinkage or
swelling behaviour of such soils
A further development of these piles is multi
Under reamed piles in which when the number
of bulbs is increased from one to two the
Carrying
capacity ofpileincreases by about 500
Civ Mode ofload transfer
End Bearing pile These piles rest over stiff or
hard strata load carrying up

Capacity is due to end Bearing

action or pointresistance
The length of these piles
depends on portion of Hard
strata
MQeb

Friction hanging piles such piles are driven in

soft Clay loose sand
or nap

extending to greaterdepth
The load carryingCapacity
at
of these piles is due to skin
fiction action The length
of friction piles maybe 10 20m

Bearing Friction Piles If piles are driven in

medium to dense stiff soil oke
then load carrying capacity
is due to combined action
ofend Bearing action 9oz
Skin friction action
a
Deb
 Method of forming
Be cast pile
Pre stressed pile
Cast in site

Vi On the Basis of functions

a
laterally loaded piles
Piles are also used to resist horizontal toad as
in case of foundation for retaining wall bridge
abutments ele
As the horizontal load acts perpendicular to
the pile axis these piles are known as laterally
loaded piles

b Batter Piles
In case of large lateral loads piles are driven
at an angle and are termed as Batter Piles
which Serve better than vertical Piles

c Compaction Piles
Short piles are sometimes Used for compacting
loose sand deposits which get densified by
Vibration set up on driving are termed as
Compaction piles
d Tension Piles
Piles are sometimes Used to resist uplift Loads
and are thus in tension hence known as Tension
uplift piles
They are suitable to be provided in swelling
Soils For eg Black Cotton soil

e Anchor Piles
Piles can also be used to provide anchorage
against horizontal pull as in case of anchored
bulk heads termed as Anchor Piles

Sheet Pile
It is Used to retain earth fills and provided
below hydraulic structures

g Fender Pile
These are Used to anchor the structure
against
tidal waves or floating objects in water

Vii On the basis of method of installation

Driven Piles
b Bored Piles
c Vibrated Piles
d Jetted Piles
 a Driven Displacement Piles
These Piles are driven through hammer action
such piles are essentially pre cast made of
metal wood
In driven piles end bearing resistance skin
friction resistance both are efficiently developed

b Bored Piles
Bored Piles may be present or cast in Site These
Piles are less efficient than driven piles

Note The best way to classify the pile is on the

basis of the effect of installation of Pile on
the Soil

Based on this criterion piles can be considered

to fall into two classes
Displacement Piles
b Non Displacement Piles

If during the installation of the pile a large

Volume of soil is displaced laterally upwards
such a pile is termed as DISPLACEMENT PILE
In loose sand such Pile densities the Sand upto
a distance of about 3.5 times the diameter of
pile from Centre
Compaction leads to increase in its
of sand
angle of shearing resistance within the Zone
of influence Impact of which can be computed
as follows

02 0 400
2
Where O Initial value of angle of shearing
resistance
02 final Value of angle of shearing
after compaction
If 0 400 no Benefit will be desired from
Piles driving
for 0 900 pilesdriving shall in fact have the
effect of seducing the angle of shearing
resistance due to dilatency effects
In days large displacement pile removed the
soil to a distance of about twice the diameter
of pile
During drivingVery high pose water pressure
are set up around the pile soil regains its
initial structure Only after a period of time
When the excess pose water pressure dissipates
This is why displacement piles are preferred for
Use in loose to medium dense sand not in
dense sand or clay
Driven Cast in site or precast piles made up
of concrete or timber are examples of
displacement
piles
A Void opening is formed in the soil by boring or
excavation is then filled with Concrete
These piles offery a advantage of no ground
heaving noise or vibration their length can be
easily varied at the site it is possible to
install
very long piles with large diameter
Selection of Pile type
The Selection of the type of pile to be used
depends upon several factors
a
Type of structure load it carries
b Location
of the site
c Soil Condition position of water table
d Required pile length structural Capability of
pile
e
Economy
 The selection of material of the Pile would
depend upon the magnitude of structural load
for light load timber pile can be Used for
heavy loads only steel or Rec Piles are considered

Pile load Capacity

For satisfactory behaviour of Pile foundation it
must be safe in Shear failure settlement
failure criterion same as that of shallow
foundation
The load capacity of the pile can be estimated
by several methods as follows
a Static
Analytical Pile load method
b Dynamic Pile Driving method
Pile Load test
d Correlation with Penetration test data

Static Pile Load Method

When a compressive Load is applied at the top
of pile it tends to more vertical downward
relative to the surrounding soil
As a result the applied load is distributed as
friction load along a certain length of pile from
the top
As the load at top is increased the friction load
distribution will extend more more towards
the tip of pile till a certain extent the entire
length of pile is involved in generating friction
resistance
This is termed as Ultimate skin friction resistance
load in excess of this begins to be transferred to
the soil at the base of pile is termed as
Point resistance base end bearing resistance at
the point where pile fails by Punching shear
failure
The maximum load which bile can support
through Combined resistance is skin friction
end bearing is termed a ULTIMATE LOAD
CAPACITY Qu of the Pile

Qu Qeb Qsf
If Qeb Qsf the pile is termed as end point
Bearing pile if Qst Get the pile is termed
as fiction pile
The relative proportion of toad carried by end
Bearing Skin friction depends on the shear
strength elasticity of soil
Note It is being observed that
When the ultimate skin friction resistance is
mobilised only a fraction of Ultimate point
Load is mobilised
1 When the Ultimate point wad resistance is
mobilised the skin friction resistance is
decreased to a lower value than its peak

Qu Qs ft Qeb
Qeb Geb Ab
I
Adb
QSf asf As 4,11111111

Qu Geb Abt 9sf As

As Surface area of pile upon which skin friction

acts
Ab Area of Cross Section of pile on which
bearing resistance acts

Note For tapered pile Ab may be taken as the

Cross sectional area at the lower one third
of the embedded length
geb Unit load toe end bearing resistance
asf average skin fiction resistance
Case i cohesive soil
for the Pile in cohesive soil point bearing is
generally neglected for individual pile action
since it is negligible as compared to frictional
resistance
The Unit Skin fiction may be taken equal to the
Shear strength multiplied by a seduction factor
L or M
skin friction along the length
asf average
of Pile
L E or M E
Zeb C Ne
Here Ne 9 geb 9C

Qu 20 As 9 CA b

a or m Adhesion Coefficient or seduction factor

Value of which depends upon type of
Clay its value can be determined
by Pile load test
 Consistency N Value Value of a
Bored Piles Driven Piles
Soft to very 24 0.7 1
Soft
Medium 4 8 0.5 0.7
Stiff 8 15 0.4 0.4
Stiff to hard 715 0.3 0.3

E Average Undrained Cohesion along the

length of Pile
c Average Undrained Cohesion of soil at
tip of pile
Note In absence of any depth both c c
may
be taken equal to qua

The allowable load for pile is given by Qa Qu

F
F FOS 2.5 3
If different Fos value are adopted for skin
friction resistance end Bearing resistance
then
Qa 4 As 9 C Ab
E Fz
Caselli for cohesionless soil
Qu Qsf Qeb
Qsb Esf As
asf MX Earth Pressure
M tons
8 Frictional Angle between Piles
Soil

Earth Pressure K E
K earth Pressure coefficient
5 0 KYL
1.72 2

Est KYM land

3
Geb Geb Ab
9eb qu CN qNq 0.5 BYNy

9eb 9Nq 10.5 BY Ny

Since qNq 70.5 BY Ny 9eb qNq YNqL

Qu KYL tan 8As YNqLAb

j
Area Circular Square
As TI DL 913L
Ab TID2 4 B2
 b
Pile Material 8 Value of K
Loose Sand Dense Sand
Steel 20 0.5 1
Concrete 0.750 1

Timber 0.370 1.5

b Dynamic Load
When a Pile hammer hits Pile the total
driving
energy is equal to the weight of hammer
times the height of drop or stroke
In addition to this in case of double acting
hammer some energy is consumed by work
done in Penetrating the Pile by certain
losses moreover in this case energy is also
imparted by steam Pressure
Following methods are available on this
Approach
I Engineering News formula
As per this method Allowable load on pile is
given by
Qa WH
F Stc
Where Qa Allowable load
H Height of fall om
F Factor of safety 6
 S Final Set Penetration per blow
usually
taken as an average Penetration em
per blow for last 5 blows of a drop
hammer 20 Blows of steam
Hammer
C Empirical formula
2.5 cm for Drop Hammer
0.25cm for Single Double Acting
Hammer

Hence
1 for Qa WH
Drop Hammer
615 2.5
drop hammer is lifted normally is
allowed to fall freely

ii for single
Acting steam Hammer Qa WH
6 s 0.75
singleacting steam Hammer is lifted by steam
Pressure is allowed to fall freely

KIDFor Double
ActingSteam Hammer Qa w tap H
6 5 0.25
2
a effective area of PistonCcm
 p mean effective steam pressure kg con 2
double acting steam hammer is both lifted
dropped Under Steam Pressure

II Hilley's formula
This method is recommended by Is code also
In this method allowable load carrying
of Pile is
Capacity
given by
WH NH Nb
Qu St C
where Qu Ultimate load on Pile
W Weight of Hammer kg
H Height of drop on Hammer em
S Penetration on set em per blow
C total elastic compression constant
C Gt Cat Cz
C Temporary elastic compression

of dolly Packing pile soil

respectively
na efficiency of Hammer
65 100 65 for Some double
acting Hammer
100 fordropHammer
Rb efficiency of Hammer blow
 ie ratio ofenergy after impact to the
striking energy of ram
It signifies the loss of energy duringimpact
his Wt et If w e p
Wt P
Or
If we eP
WEEP hey y
P weight of Pile helmet follower
e coefficient
of restitution
It is variable from Zero for a timber pile
with Poor Condition of head to 0.5 for
double action steam hammer for steel
pile or RCC Piles
The allowable load is given by
Qa QE
F Factor of Safety 2 3

Note Dynamic formula are best suited to coarse

grained soil for which the Shear Strength is
independent of rate of loading as they allow
no development of excess Pose Pressure
 around the Pile driving if saturated or
dry
The Great Objection of any of the Pile driving
formula is Uncertainity about the relationship
the dynamic Static resistance of soil
In Case of submerged loose Uniform fine sand
impact of driving may cause liquefaction of
Soil thus showing much less resistance than that
Which will Occur under a static load
On the same lines a
very dense saturated fine
Sand may show an increased drivingresistance
For Clay dynamicformula are Useless become the
skin friction developed is very much less
remolding also takes place
Dynamic formula gives no indication about
Probable future settlement
It does not take into account the reduced bearing
Capacity of Pile in group
Weight of Pile in inertia effect is neglected
In Hilley's formula a number of constant are
involved which are difficult to calculate
CPile load Test
This test can be performed either on working
Pile which forms the foundation of the structure
or on a test Pile
since after the test Pile cannot be put into
Service use it is a type of destructive test
The test load is applied with the help of
Calibrated jack placed Over a rigid Circular or
square Plate which in turn is placed over the
head of Pile Projecting above the ground level
The reaction of Jack is borne by a truss which may
have gravityloading or truss can be anchored
to the ground with the help of anchor piles
The load is applied in equal increments of about
of estimated allowable load
m

The Settlement is recorded by the help of three

dial gauge placed at an angle of 1200
Each load increment is kept applied upto an
extent the rate of settlementseduces 0.02mm ha
The test pile is loaded Until ultimate load is
reached Ordinarily the test load is increased
upto 2.5 times the estimated allowable value
or a load which causes the settlement
equal
 to I loth of Pile diameter Which occur earlier
The results are reported in terms of load
settlement curve either on Arithmatic or log
scale

Boy

In Case Ultimate load cannot be obtained from

Wad Settlement Curve the allowable load is
taken as follows
i
1
to of final load which cause the
3

i
settlement
equal to 10 o of Pile diameter
of final load Which Causes a total settlement
of 12 mm
Iii of final load which causes a net settlement of
6mm residual settlement after the removal of load

This method is more accurate recommended by

IS Code
This method can also be Used to find the
allowable
load on pile Using Settlement Criteria
In Order to separately find both end Bearing
resistance skin friction resistance cyclic plate
load test is performed

1 Coselation with SPT N Value CPT resistance

Value
a Relation with SPT N Value
According to Meyeroff for driven piles
Displacement type
Qup Geb Ab T Est As
Qup 900N Abt 2N As
N SPT no at the base of Pile
N Avg SPT no over the length of pile
Lii For Driven Pile Non displacement type H Pile
Qup Qeb I Qsf
 Qup 400N Abt IGN As

iii for Bored Piles

Qup Qup Displacement

Qup N As
40,0 NAb 3
b Relation with CPT resistance
i for driven Pile displacement
type
Qup Qeb asf
Qup Ee Ab 9g As

Ii For driven pile Non displacementtype

Qup Qeb Last
Qup 9 e Abt
9g As

Iii For Bored Piles

Qup 3 Qup displacement

Qup 9g Abt 98 As
Where qc Static cone resistance of soil at base of
Pile Kg con2
q Average Static Cone Resistance of soil
over the length of Pile Kg am 2

Negative skin friction

Piles installed in freshly placed fills of soft
compressive deposits are subjected to a downward
drag a consequence of consolidation of soil after
Pile are installed
This downward drag on Pile Surface when the
soil move down relative to the Pile is termed as
NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION
This negative skin friction may also develop if
the fill material is loose Sand deposit or due
to lowering of the ground water table which
increases the effective stress thus causing
consolidation of the Soil
It may also be observed due to placement of
Surcharge over the ground surface due to
Dynamic load on Soil
A small relative movement between the soil the
pile of Order of about to mm may be sufficient
for the full negative skin friction to materialise
 In Bearing Piles where Settlement of Pile is
negligible
negative skin friction becomes a pile
capacity
problem but for Piles in Compressive Soil
Whose pile capacity is contributed by both point
resistance skin the problem of negative skin
friction should be considered as settlement
Problem

de

Qeb
This magnitude of negative Skin friction for a
Single pile in filled up soil deposit may be given
as
a for Cohesive Soil
Fn L E AS
Fn L E P Le
Where d adhesion factor
E Average Cohesion of compressible layer
Le Length of pile in Compressible layer
P Perimeter Of Pile
b for Cohesionless Soil
An KY LelandAs KY Letand Pc Le
L L
Fn Kp 7 LE land
L
Where k lateral earth pressure Coefficient
F Angle of friction between the Pile Soil
L0 3 0
Group Action Of Pile
If Applied wad is large more no of piles are
Used then either Piles will act individually or in
the group depending upon the spacing in between
the piles
If Clc spacing is 2.5D to 4 D then Soil may get
Compacted between Piles entire wedge of size
BX B
may act as a single pile such a action is
Called GROUP ACTION OF PILE
In group action base Area Surface area both
will increase
In groupaction the depth of stress Zone extends
to greater depth than in individual action of Pile
therefore settlement due to consolidation in group
action is more than Settlement in individual action
of Pile
The minimum no
of Pile required for Group action
is 3
The Pile group may be triangular circular

Preferred
rectangular
or Polygon however square Pile group is

Group action depends upon Clc spacing between

Piles
for end bearing Pile Spacing is 2.5 3.5 D
for friction pilespacing is 3 4 D
Iii For Pile in loose sand spacing is kept 20
If the spacing is governed as above then load
carrying capacity of Pile group in sand comes to
be greater than sum of load carrying of all
the piles whereas in case of clay it depends
upon properties of soil spacing
If Piles are to be driven then Piledriving
mechanism
should start from centre proceed outward
i e It means Central pile is to driven first
processing piles are driven in radially outward
direction as in this process resistance in pile
driving will be less hence it would be more
economical
3 3 13 25 d
4 4 13 3 Std
5 5 13 4 Std

For MX n

B m 1 Std
Determination of Load carrying capacity of Pile
9 MQug
Geb Qsf Qug Geb Ab asf As

for cohesive soil

Qug 90132 LI GBL
Here 2 1 adhesion between Soil Soil
Qu gCB at E 4 BL
g
C
average cohesion at Base of Pilegroup
E Average Cohesion at Base of Pile group

1 For Cohesionless soil

Qug qNq Abt 12 KYL ton 8 As

Here 8 0 frictionangle between soil soil

Qug MLNqB't KYL tan0 4132
L
Allowable Load Safe load On the Pile Group
Allowable load safe load on the Pile group is
given as minimum of following
Qsare Qu f
n Qup f minimum
 Where n no of Piles
in Group
Qup Individual Pile Capacity
Quy Pile Capacity of Group
F Fos

Group Efficiay
It is defined as ratio of Ultimate load carrying
Capacity of Pile group to the sum of Ultimate
load Carrying capacity of all the piles Under
individual action
ng Qugn Qup

Where n no of Piles in the Group

Note If ng 1 then Qsafe n Qp

Therefore In design ng should be 21

Disturbance of soil during installation of pile
Overlap of Stresses between adjacent piles may
cause the group capacity to become less than
the Sum of individual Capacity i e ng 1
Generally for smaller spacings between the piles
 Uh I for larger spacing the effect of pile
reduced interaction
ngapproaches Unity
In driven piles where the soil around the piles
get densified as in loose to medium sand ng
may be more than 1
In this case group tends to behave like a block
or like equivalent single pile
The ng depends mainly on the spacing between
Piles type of soil in which Pile is installed
manner of pile installation i e driven bored
Ng can also be computed empirically as Using
a Converse Labarre formula

s
Cn Dm em in
ng go mn

Here o tan
as degrees

Where M no of sows
n no
of piles in a row
d diameter of Piles
S Spacing of piles

b Feld's Rule
According to this rule the value of each pile is
seduced by on account of effect of nearest
Im
 pile in each diagonal or straight now of which the
bile in question is a member
eg

so no

2 piles 1516 3 piles 1416

2 15 16 100 3 x 1416 100
hg y x
2 ng 3
93.75 o 87.5 o

00
4 pile 1316 I pile 1216

9 13167 14216 x 100

ng
on 5

Ng 80

Group settlement ratio

For eliminating the Settlement of pile group in
Sand Pile load test is Used interpolation of
load settlement curve is done
Settlement of no of Pile group Gnsisting of
driven piles with the settlement of individual
 Pile in sand for the same load per pile after
being Compared can be expressed in terms of
settlement of an individual pile is termed as
GROUP SETTLEMENT RATIO given by
413 27
B 36 Y
Where B Width of Pile group m
Sg Settlement of Pile Group
Si Settlement of individual pile

Note The above ratio is for same load Q perpile

Sg in sand Varies in the range of 1 16

irrespective
of width of pile
Determination of settlementof pile group in Clay
The settlement of a pile group in Clay cannot be
estimated from the data of load test on a single
pile because of time effect the effectof semould
ing of Soil due to pile driving the scale
effect which are different for the single test
pile group of pile
In this case approach used for settlement of
 Pile group is Equivalent Raft Approach
Depending on the subsoil Conditions Several
assumptions are being made to identify the
location of equivalent raft over which the pile
are assumed to transfer the vertical load

acting on them
Caseis when Pile are end Bearing
It means the soil below the base of Pile is stiff
dense whereas above the base of pile is loose
soft
In this case skin friction is negligible equivalent
raft may be assumed at the base of pile
group
 In this settlement is computed as
Assume equivalent raft at Base of Pile Group
b Identify thickness
c
ofCompressible soil Ho
to at CC
d Increase in effective stress Do
Do Q
2
B 2n 2
DH H
qq.bg I
Case I when Piles are driven throughUniform
Clay deposit pile group act as a
pile group friction
Let the top layer is softoflength 4 Bottom layer
is stiff and is embedded upto the length of La
In this case end Bearing resistance skin friction
resistance both will be developed
The equivalent raft in this is caseassumed to be
present at 3 Lz from base of top layer
remaining procedure is same
 or

Guidelines to Design a Pile Group

Length For friction pile group length may be 10
20 m Whereas for end Bearing pile group
it is equal to depth of hard strata
ii Diameter It is kept in
range of 0.3 0.9m
Gii Spacing It is kept in range of 2.5D 4D generally
Civ No
of Piles in Group Generally Square pile group
13 3 4 4 5 5 is preferred
Group Efficiency It should be 2 1

Note In end Bearingpile Qup Qeb

In friction pile Qup Qsf
Negative skin friction in Pile Group

When pile
group passes through a soft
Unconsolidated
stratum the magnitude of negative skin
friction on the group Eng is given as higher of
the value obtained through following
relationship
Fng n Fn I

Fng L Cu LcPg Y LcAg

2 1 adhesion between Soil Soil
Eng Cu LcPg Y Le Ag
Where
n no of piles in group
Pg Perimeter of group
Y Unit weight of soil with pilegroup upto
depth Le
 Ag Area of Pile group within the perimeter
Pg

Note Thesecond relationship is computed on the

basis of block shear failure along the
Perimeter
of Pile group which includes the
Volume of soil enclosed in the group Alc

The effect of negative skin friction on the Fos w.at

estimate load capacity of pile or a Pile group
can be considered as

fog Ultimate load Capacity of single pile pile

group
working load negative skin friction Load

Note Qu Qeb asf for cohesionless soil

Qeb Geb Ab Geb q Nq q YL
Geb Y L Nq
Geb L L
From the above relationship it can be Analysed
that the Unit point resistance increases in direct
proportion to the embedded length ofpile
However field Observation indicate that these
values increases only upto a limited depth beyond
Which it remains constant
This depth is called the critical depth of Pile
This Phenomenon is due to ARCH EFFECT in
the
granular soil
The critical depth depends on the angle of
Shearing resistance of soil size of pile
Its value may vary from about 15D in loose to
medium Sand to 20D in dense sand where D is
pile diameter or width
It is also recommended that maximum value of
Unit point resistance geb be 11,000 kN ma in
normal Silica Sand or 5000 kN ma for Calcereous
Sand
Arching Occurs when there is a difference of the
stiffness between the installed structure the
surrounding Soil
If the Structure is stiffer than the Soil then load
arches onto the structure otherwise if the
Structure
is less stiffer than Soil then load arches
away from the Structure
 Qsf 9Sf As
asf K Tang land
K tand
asf Yy
Esf X L

From the above relationship it can be analysed

that asf increases with depth but in actual it
does so only upto Critical depth which Varies
from 15 20 times the pile diameter
Below the Critical depth the value of o the
value of asf remains constant
The maximum value of asf should be limited
to 100 kN m2 for Straight piles in normal silica
Sand upto 20 KN m2 for Calcareous Sand

Q A Single vertical friction pile of diameter 500mm

length 20 m is subjected to a vertical
Compressive load The pile is embedded in a
 homogeneous sandy strata where angle of internal
friction 0 300 7 20 KN m3 angle of wall
friction 8 310 Considering the Coefficient of
lateral earth pressure 12 2.7 Nq 25 find
the Ultimate bearing Capacity of Pile Check for
Arching Effect
Sol 90 15
4 29 7511 7.5 m

Qeb Geb Ab 20m Itm

212.5m
qeb qNq
qeb 7115D Nq osm
150 25
37502 11000 KN m

Qeb 9eb Ab
2
3750 X o 5

736 KN
K E tans
Est Est 9512 asf
2.7 1520 tan 30
3
73.70 kN m
Esf
2150 ton33 30
asf K F tan8 2.7 150
 9512 147.4 KN m2 100 KN m

951 73.70XT1 0.5715 0.5 100X TIX 0 5 X 7.5

9sp 2831 5 KN

Qu Qebt Qsf 736 2831.5 3567 7 KN

Q Determine the allowable pile load capacity of

the 40 cm diameter driven Concrete pile f 2.5

Sol i loose sand

7.5 215 here no
arching effect
I 8.4

Qsf Est As
9s K F tan8 1
1643 x
tan
31 30

9.9 KN m2 L 100 KN m
 99 1
Qsf 9.9 7 0.4 3 3747 KN

ii SoftClay
Qsf2 4 Cu As2 1 15 X TI O 4 6 7 Qs12 113.09KN

Iii Dense sand

12.5220 No Arching Effect
5 05.4

QSfz 9sfz As
Top
asf K F land 4 16 3 6 18 10
96 KN m
16 3 6118 107 5110 7bottom
5 5
146 KN m
F1 96 146 121 KN m
2

Esp 2 121 X ton 34 400 139.71 KN m2

100 KN M

Qst 100 7 10.47 5 628.31 KN

Geb Geb Ab

9eb qNq 3 Nq 146 160 233607

11000 KN m
Qu Osh Q stat Qsf Qeb
Qu 2161 KN i Qa
91 221.615 Qu 864.5
KN
Piles subjected to uplift loads
structure such as tall towers Silos Chimneys
Off Shore platforms and dry docks are Usually
provided with pile foundation to resist the large
uplift pressure due to water Overturning
moments
Piles Used for this purpose are Called as uplift
or tension Piles
The Uplift Capacity of Pile is calculated in a
manner similar to pile subjected to compressive
load
Uplift Piles are invariably provided with an
enlarged area at the base in form of bulb
or ball
Pile develop resistance to pull out only from the
skin friction develop along the embedded length
point bearing is not included but the weight
of pile is included in Uplift Resistance
Case i Pile in Clay
Qut 9s ft As Wp
where
Est E Unit Skin friction
in tension
 As embedded area of Pile shaft
Wp Weight of Pile
Estt is taken equal to asf in compression for
Un drained conditions

When the Base of Pile is enlarged in form of

bulb or a ball the Smaller of two values is
considered given by
Qut Cu As K Ws Wp 1

Or
Que 2.25 Tl Db2 D Cut up 11
Where
As Surface area of vertical
Cylinder above the base
Db Diameter of Base
D Diameter of Pile Shaft
K Coefficient
Ws weight of soil included
in the region between pile
shaft and Cylinder
above the base
 Type of Soil K
Soft Clay I 1.25
Medium Clay 0.7
Stiff Clay 0.5
Fissured Clay 0 25

Note The i equation is on basis of failure assumed

through fall mobilisation of friction resistance
along the cylindrical surface above the
base diameter and eq ii is based on
bearing Capacity failure of Base
 FOUNDATION ON EXPANSIVE SOIL

Expansive soils or swelling soils are those

Which have the tendency to increase in volume
When water is available to decrease in volume
if water is removed
Eg Black Cotton Soil Bentonite soil
Black Cotton Soil of india have liquid limit we
ranging from 50 100 plasticity Index Ip
ranging from 20 65 Shrinkage limit Ws
from 9 14
The minus 2m fraction in soil varies from 40 75
The soil is very hard in dry state and
possess high Shearing strength which get
reduced appreciably with addition of water
In general expansive soil have wet Ws ti Ipt
Is 4
The swelling behaviour of soil would depend
largely on the type of clay mineral present
in the soils and Proportions of these minerals
In order to determine this behaviour following
techniques are available
Differential Thermal Analysis DTA
Ii X Ray diffraction method
Iii Electron Microscopy
The DTA method is based on the fact that
certain characteristics reaction takes place at
specific temperature for different minerals
When these are heated to high temperature
resulting in loss or gain in heat
Different minerals will have differentregular
Patterns of Crystalline structure will different
X ray to yield different x ray diffraction
Pattern
In electron microscopy the soil is observed
Under polarised light in a electron microscope
to identify the characteristics strain of a
mineral
From engineering point
of view following test
are performed to find the
swelling potential
of soil
i free swell test
This is performed by pouring slowly 10cm3 of
dry soil passing through 425 micron Sieve into
a 100 cc graduated cylinder filled with water
The Volume of swelled soil is read after 29 has
from Graduation of cylinder to givefree Swell
Value
 Free swell Final Volume Initial Volume x too
Initial Volume

Bentonite Soil containing montmosillonite have

free swell Value of 1200 2000 o
Kaolinite has free Swell value of so illite
have Swell value of 30 80

Ii Differential free swell test

In this test two sample of dried soil weighing
10
gm each passing through 425 m sieve are
taken
One is put in a 50 cc graduated glasscylinder
Containing kerosene oil a non polar liquid
The other sample is put in a Similar Cylinder
Containing distilled water
Both the sample are left Undisturbed for 24
hours and Volume is noted
The differential tree Swell DFS is expressed
Soil Volume in so it Volume is
DFS water kerosene X 100
Soil Volume in kerosene
 Degreeof expansiveness Possible damage on
lightly Loaded structure may be referred as
follows
Degree of Expansiveness DESC
Low 220
Moderate 20 35
High 35 50
Very High 750

Note Expansive swelling potential of soil can also

be related as follows
colloid Ip Wsl'd Probable Degreeof
Contento Expansion Expansion
Oo
215 418 715 210 Low
13 23 15 28 10 16 10 20 Medium
20 31 2 4 7 12 20 30 High
728 735 211 730 VeryHigh

Swelling Potential Ipc

LOW O 15
Medium 10 35
High 20 35
Very High 735
 Ws Oo Linear Shrinkage Degree of Expansion
10 78 Critical
10 12 5 8 Marginal
12 0 5 Non Critical

Ii Swelling Pressure Test

When an expansive soil imbibes water from outside
pressure builds up inside the Soil
If free swelling of soil is restrained by placement
of structure over the soil this pressure is called
SWELLING PRESSURE and is exerted by soil on
the Overlying structure
Theforce required to prevent expansion in the
soil is function of time
A swelling pressure less than 20 kN m2 may not
be regarded as of much Consequence

Field condition that favours swelling

A soil may have high swelling potential but still
may or may not swell in actual practice
This would depend on many factors the most
significant of them is being the difference
between
the field moisture content equilibrium
moisture content that will be materialised After
Construction
 If FNC EMC Expansion of soil results
FMC EMC Shrinkage of Soil results

A fill which has been compacted to a

great
degree or an over consolidated deposit will
have more tendency to swell given access to
water
It load that is placed on swelling soil is more
the swelling of soil is inhibited Vice Versa

Design of foundation On Expansive Soil

The rational method of foundationdesign which
are being used to seduce or prevent the effect
of swelling can be grouped into 3 Categories
Isolating the structure from Swelling soil
Ii Designing a structure to withstand the effect of
swelling
Hii Preventing the Swelling

In first Approach either belled piers or Under

reamed piles are Provided
The principle of Under seamed piles is based
on fact that to involve the toad transfer to pile
at a depth beyond the Zone of seasonal
Variation
The depth of black cotton soil is approx 3.5 4m
in India
for other Expansive soil the pile is taken down
to atleast 0.6 m into the non expansive layer
Under lying the Swelling soil
The Under seamed piles are bored cast in situ
piles with their lower portion enlarged or seamed
in the form of Bulb
The spacing of pile is in the range of 1.5 3m
Diameter of these Piles Varies between 200 500mm
ratio of diameter of enlarged Base or bulb
to that of Shaft Du p is in range of 2 3
In case of multi seamed pile having more
than One bulb the top most bulb should be
at a minimum depth of 2 times the bulb diameter
The CC distance between the bulb is
1.25 1 5 Du
Safe load
A Fos of 2.5 3 is Used to calculate
For Clay Soil the Ultimate load
carrying capacity
of Under seamed pile is given by
Qu Ap Nc Cpt Aa Ne Ca t Ca As t d Ca As

Where Qu Ultimate Bearing Capacity of pile

 Ap Cross Section area of pile stem at toe
level TD 2 4
Not Bearing Capacity factor 9
Aa Area of soil surrounding the stem
below the bulb Dus DD
I
Cat Average Cohesion of soil around Under
seamed bulb
seduction factor
95 Average Cohesion of soil around the toe
Ca Average cohesion of soilalong pilestem
As Surface Area of stem
As Surface Area of Cylinder circumscribing
the bulb

Note If Pile has Only One bulb third term will not
be Used Q Q

M B

mu Mu
1 Designing a structure which is strong rigid
enough to withstand the effect of swelling may
prove to be highly Uneconomical except in case
of very Small structure where even if the toads
are supported by the central area or
Peripheral
area much smaller than the plan area the
bearing pressure are within limits
it swelling can often be controlled but cannot be
eliminated by providing an impervious apron
around the Structure
By providing the apron the moisture gradient
between the centre of the Structure its edges is
minimised hence the differential swelling is
Controlled
Elimination of possible swelling can be achieved
by
a Pre wetting the ground to a moisture content
equal to the equilibrium moisture content
b
Making downward load large to exceed
Swelling pressure
By Chemical Stabilisation
Q A pile 45 cm in diameter 20 m long is driven
into a clay soil with Cu 40 KN m2 Out 0
Ysat 19 KN m ground water is almost at ground
level
If pile has an enlarged base of diameter 1.25m
Determine the uplift Capacity of bile Under
Undrained
Condition Submerged unit weight of pile is
40 KN
Also consider skin friction resistance while analysing
the Capacity by bearing failure
So1 Fat
Qut Cu As Kt Ws Wp
Assume K 0.75
Gf
Was agg

Qut 90XTI 1 25 20 0.75 1970 IOX 1 2520.454

40

QUE 2588.45 14N

Or
 Qut 2.25TL Db2 D4CutWp L.Cu.As
2.25X3.14X 1.252 0.454 40 40
0.5 40 7 10.4571120

Qut 990 KN

i Qu 2588 45,990 KN minimum

Qu 990km

Q A group of 16 piles of diameter 500cm length

14m CK spacing of m arranged in square
pattern passes through a recent fill thickness 3m
Overlying a softday deposit thickness 5m which
is consolidating Under the fill load rest is
Stiff Clay Strata
All the strata are Saturated Soil properties are
given below
Estimate Ultimate load carrying capacity of Pile
group
Typeof soil Unitwt Strength Parameter Adhesion
KNM CuckPa Ou Parameter
Fill 16 50 0 0.6
Soft Clay 17 20 0 0.4
Stiff Clay 21 70 0 0.45
 y
Sol

Ball

Btf
Clay

stiff
Clay

Pile acting Individually

Qug n Qup
n ThebtQs I
n Geb Abt 9sf As
I 6Icu Nc Ab I Li Cui Tl D Li

I670 9 44 10 5 TI XO 5 X O GX 50 3

0.4 20 5 0 45 70 6

Quy 9996 54 kN

Ii Pile Acting in Group

Qug Qeb Qs f
 Qug Geb Abt asf As
Cu NcAb EL Cui 413 Li
2
70 9 X 3 5 1 4 3 5.150 3 20 5 70 6
Qug 17097.5 kN

Quy 9996.54 17097 5 KN minimum

Qug 9996.54 kN

Q Calculate the Settlement of 9 pilegroup for

Condition Indicated as follows

Sol location of equivalent raft from Ground

Surface L 5 3.34 m
by 3
Thickness of Centreofcompressible 3.34 8.67
2
layer from Ground surface
5.17m
To Y D 20 10 5.17
51.7 KN m
13 2 Std 2 0.5 0.2 12 m
B B 2n 2 12 2 3m
21 3.267

Do 50302
55.5 KN m

DH to't do
CHE logo To
Cc 0.009 WL 10 0.009 40 10
0.27

DH 0 27 3.67 logo 51.7 55.5

1 1.05 51.7
DH 153mm
 STABILISATION OF SOILS

Stabilisation of the soil includes various methods

for modifying the properties of the soil to
improve its engineering performance
Stabilisation is being used for a variety of
engineering
Works like roadways airfields Foundation
work etc
The main objective in this case is to increase the
strength or stability of the soil to make it more
costeffective
Methods of stabilisation is grouped into two
a Modification or Improvement
of a soil property
of the existing soil compaction drainage
b Modification of property with the help of
admixtures Mechanical Stabilization Bitumen lime
cement Chemical Electrical Thermal stabilisation

i Mechanical Stabilisation
It involves two operations
Changing the composition of soil by addition
a or
removal of certain Constituents
b Densification or compaction
 This is been carried out largely in construction of
Cheap roads Using locally available material

ii Cement Stabilisation
The Soil stabilised with cement is known as soil
cement
The Cementing action is due to result of the
chemical reaction of cement with Siliceous soil
by binding action of the individual particles
through Cement In Coarse Grained Soil
In case of fine Grained soil binding action is due
to cohesion
Well Graded Soil with less than 50 fraction
finer than 75 M Sieve Ip 20 are found to
be most responsive to cement stabilisation
The amount of cement required is in range of
5 15
by weight of dry soil
For cement it is 5 10
For Sand it is 7 15
For silt it is 12 15 o
For Clay it is 12 20 o
The Amount of water to be added is decided
from Consideration of Good Compaction and this
amount must be adequate for complete
 hydration of cement

Q Calculate the
number of cement bag required
for preparing a layer of settlement having
Surface Area of 5 5 m2 thickness of 50cm
with
dry density of 18 KN m3 If 10 o of
Cement assume by weight of soil is
dry
required
Sol let weight of soil be ca kg
weight of cement 10 of a 0 I n kg
weight of soil Cement at O In I I n kg
1

weight of Soil Cement Stabilised 25 0.50 18 102

225 102 Kg
22500 kg
1 In 22500
x 20454 54 kg
weight of Cement 0 1 2 0.1 20454.54
2045.5
kg
Number of Cement bags 2045.5 40.91
50
Number of cement bags 41 Bags
Iii Lime Stabilisation
Hydrated lime is very effective in treating heavy
Plastic Clay Soil
time may be Used alone or in combination with
Cement Bitumen flyash
Sandy Soil Can also be stabilised using this
combination
It is mainly used for stabilising the toads Sub
grades etc
On addition of time to soil two types of chemical
reaction occurs
Alteration in the nature of absorbed layer
through
base exchange phenomenon
Cementing or Pozzotonic action
time seduces the Ip of highly plastic soil 97
increases the optimum moisture content and
decreases the compacted density but strength
durability increases
Normally 2 8 of lime may be required for
Coarse grained soil and 5 10 o for plastic
soil
Civ Bitumen Stabilisation
Asphalt and tar are the bituminous material
Which are used for stabilisation of soil for
pavement construction
Since the Viscocity of these material is
comparatively
very high it is 1st seduced beforeadding
it into the soil
The bituminous material when added impart
binding action or water proofing action or both
in soil
Depending upon these action nature of soil
bitumen Stabilisation is further classified as
a soil bitumen
b sand Bitumen
c Waterproof Mechanical Stabilisation
d Oiled Earth

a It refers for cohesive soil in which main function

is to preserve the cohesive strength of soil by
Waterproofing the soil
b This term refers to the Bitumen Stabilised
Cohesionless Soil Such as loose dunes river
Sand
Here Primary function of bitumen as to bind the
soil Particles
c In this small amount of bitumen 1 3 are
sometimes added to mechanically stabilised
soil to make them waterproof
d slow medium curing road oils are spread on
ground surface to make it water and abrasion
resistant
The oil Penetrates into the soil to the shoot
depth also imparts cementing action

E Chemical stabilisation
a Calcium Chloride
It is used as water retentive additive in
mechanical
Stabilised bases Surfacing
Being hydroscopic deliquescent this absorbs
moisture from the atmosphere and retain it
It acts as a typeof flock forming reagent and
helps in Compaction of soil

b Sodium Chloride
The action of sodium Chloride is same as that of
call but it is not widely used
It attracts retains moisture and reduces rate
of evaporation
c Sodium Silicate
It is used in combination of other chemicals
Such as Cada Nacl etc for stabilisation of
soil

1 Stabilisation by Heat
Heating a finegrained soil to a temperature of
400 600 C Causes irreversible changes in
Clay mineral
The soil becomes non plastic less water sensitive
non expansive
This methods is deployed in furnaces

V11 Electrical Stabilisation

The stability or shear strength of fine grained
Soil can be increased by draining them with
passage of direct current through them
This process also termed as Electro osmosis

Q A square pilegroup of 16 piles penetrates

through a filled up soil 3m depth The pile
0 250 mm Spacing 0.75m The Unit
Cohesionof the material is 18 In m2 the Unit
Weight of Soil is 15KN m Compute the negative
 Skin friction on the Group Assume 4 0.4

Sol i F
ng Fn
n
Lii Fng Cu Pg Let 7 Le Ag maximum

Eng n Fn 16X h Tu Pg Le
16 0.4 X 18 XT1 X 0.25 3
271 43 KN

Ing CT Pg Let Y Lc Ag
I6 2.5 3 4 15 3 X 3 0.75 0.2572
821 25 KN
Adopt Eng 821 25 KN

Q A singleunder reamed pile is installed in a soft

Clay deposit the centre of Under team is lo ca
 ted at a depth of 15m from the Ground Surface
The diameter of pile shaft and bulb is I m
25m respectively Determine the allowable load
with Fos 2.5 The Undrained Shear Strength
of the soil obtaining from Vane shear test is
given by Cu 65 7 D
Cu 10 KN m2 D is Depth m Assume 4 1 and
average cohesion of soil around the bulb is
0.9Cu
Sol Cu 65 7 D 65 7 15 170 KN m
C 0.9 Cu 0.9 X 170 153 KN m

Qu 4 x 149 X170 4
2.52 12 X 9 X 153

IX 65 TI X I X 15
2170 X

Qu 12416 55 KN
Qa 12416 55 4966 62 KN
2.5

Note Ifthere is another bulb of same 0 below

the Ist bulb spacing between the centre
of bulb is 4m Compute the allowable toad
Qu 1 9 170
4 I
Cu 65 7 19 198 kN m
Cut 0.9 198 1782 KN m
Ca 65 65 7 15 117.5 KN m
2
Cal 65 7 15 65 7 19 184 KN m
2
02
Cat 65 7 17
184 KN m

Qu TI x 12 9 198
41 2.52 12 9 178.2

IX 184 XTI X 2.5 4 TIX 117.5 XTI XIX 15

Qu 19330 18 KN
Qa 19330.18 7732.07 KN
2.5
 SUB SOIL EXPLORATION

The Objective of site exploration is to provide

reliable specific detailed information about the
Soil ground water condition of the Site which
may be required for a safe and economic design
of engineeringworks
The exploration must be preceded by the site
reconnaissance
The information required is
The Order of Occurrence extent of soil
rock Strata
The nature engineering properties of soil
and rock formation
Location of GWT and its Variation

Depth of Exploration
Exploration in general should be carried out
upto a depth at which increase in pressure
due to structural loading is likely to cause
Settlement or shear failure
Such a depth is termed as significant depth
It depends upon type of structure weight size
Shape and deposition of loaded Area
 It is Generally safe to assumesignificant depth
as depth of 10 or 20 Overburden pressure
Residual
Thedepth of exploration fordifferent worky are
as follows
i Isolated spread footing raft 1.513
ii Adjacent footing with dear spacing less than
2B T 5L
iii Pile foundation 10 30 m or more
or at least 1.5 width of structure
iv Base of
retaining wall 1.5 the base width or 1.5
times exposed height of
face whichever isGreater
V Floating basement Depth
of Construction
vi Dams 1.5 Bottom width of earth dam 2 times
height of bed to Crest from Concretedams
vii Road Cut fills one meter where little Cut or
fills is required can be extended
upto 2m fordeep cut
viii Borrow Area Convenience of excavation or
thickness available
ix From the consideration 15m in General of
of weathering weathering
2
Method of Site exploration
Site exploration can be done by any of the
following methods
i open excavation
Ci Boring
Iii Subsurface Sounding
Iv Geophysical method

i open Excavation
Test pit and trenches can be Used for all type
of Soils
Soil can be inspected in their natural Condition
Samples disturbed or Undisturbed Can be
Conveniently taken
The cost of open excavation however increases
with depth
They are generally considered Suitable for shallow
depth upto 3 m

ii Boring
The method of Boring drilling are as follows
a
Auger Boring
These are used in cohesive other soft soils
above watertable
 Hand Augers are Used upto depth of Gm
mechanical augers are Used for greater depth
they can also be Used in Gravelly soil
Sample recovered from these soil brought up
by augers are badly disturbed are useful for
identification purpose Only

b Auger Shell Boring

Cylindrical Anger Shell with cutting edge on
teeth at the lower end can be used for making
the borings
Augers are suitable for soft to stiffClay shell for
very stiff hard days shell pumps for Sandy
soils

C Wash Boring
It is a fast simple method for advancing holes
in all types of soils
Boulders rocks cannot be penetrated by this
method
This method consists of first driving a casing
through a hollow drill rod with a sharp Chiesel
water is forced Under pressure through the
drilled sod
 The cuttings are forced up on the ground and
are further tested
d Percussion Boring
In this method soil rock formation are broken
by repeated blows of heavy Chiesels by cable
or drilled rod
Water is added to the hole during the boring if
not already present to form the slurry
It is suitable for all type of soil boulders and socks

e Rotary Boring
It is a very fast method of advancing a hole
in both socks Soils
A drill bit fixed to the lower end of drill rods
is rotated by a suitable mechanism

Soil Sample
Soil Sample in generally classified into 2
Categories
I Disturbed Sample
I Undisturbed sample
I Disturbed Samples
These are those where the soil structure gets
modified or destroyed during the Sampling
operation
These are further classified into following
a Representative sample
With suitable precautions the natural moisture
content proportion of mineral constituent can
be preserved in the Sample termed as
Representative sample

b Non Representative Sample

If during the sampling in the addition to the
alteration in the Original soil structure soil
from the other layer gets mixed up or mineral
Constituents gets altered the sample is termed
as Non Representative sample
Representative samples are Useful for
identifications
test but non Representative samples are
of No Use

II Undisturbed sample
These are those where Original Soil Structure is
pressured the material properties have not
been Altered
These samples are practically not possible to
obtain but samples with minor alteration are
Still Suitable for lab test

Type of soil samples required for Lab test

Typeof Test Type of sample required

Natural Water Content Undisturbed
Density Undisturbed
Specific Gravity Representative or
Undisturbed
Grain size distribution Representative or
Undisturbed
Alterberg limit representative or
Undisturbed
Coefficient of permeability Undisturbed
Consolidation Parameters undisturbed
Shear Strength Undisturbed
Parameter

The extent of Disturbance of the sample due to

Sampler depends upon three features
a
cutting Edge
b Inside wall friction
C Non Return Valve
The following ratios related to the dimensions of
the cutting edge the samples are Useful

Inside clearance Ci
Ci 0351 X 100 30
Ci t

Outside Clearance Co
Co D4 Day 100
D2

Co D2 04 100 Co O 20
D2
Area Ratio Ar

x 100
Az PRIDE
Wha
D Inside diameter of cutting edge
De Outside diameter of cutting edge
Dz Inside diameter of sampling tube
Dy Outside diameter of sampling tube

The inside clearance is meant to seduce the

friction between the soil sample the sampler
when the soil enters into the tube by allowing
for elastic expansion
If the inside clearance is too high these will be
too much of lateral expansion
Outside clearance will help reduce the friction
while the sampler is being driven being
withdrawn after the sample is collected
Ci 1 3 o

Co O 2 It should not be much greater

than Ci
A sea ratio should be keptas low as possible
Consistent with the strength requirements of
 the drive shoe the Sampling tube so as to
reduce Sample disturbance
Ar 200 o for stiff formation
Ar 720me o
for soft sensitive soil
Another Parameter which is an index ofsample
disturbance is recovery Ratio La
recovered length ofsample
Recovery ratio
La Penetration length of sample

If 22 1 Good Recovery
If LK t Compression while sampling
If 1271 Expansion Swelling while sampling

To seduce wall friction the sampling tube

should have smooth finish should be
properly
oiled before Use

Type of Sampler
The Commonly Used Samples are as follows

I Oben drive
sampler
This sampler essentially consist of a seamless
open end steel tube with a cuttingedge
The tube is connected through a head to the
Drill sod
 The sampler head is provided with Vents to
permit water air to escape during the
sampling also a check valve to retain the
sample
Thin wall samplers are Used in this case to
Obtain Undisturbed Samples

I Piston Sampler
A piston sampler Consists of 2 Separate
an parts
a sampler cylinder
b Piston cylinder

The Piston Which is activated separately and

amnio

fitstightly in the Sampler cylinder

It is useful in sampling saturated sand other
soft and wet soil which cannot be sampled by
open drive sampler

II Rotatory Sampler
It is a double walled tube sampler with an
inner Removable liner
The Outer tube or the rotating barrel is
provided with a cutting bit
The bit cuts an annular sing when the barrel
is rotated
 The inner tube which is stationary slides over
the cylindrical sample cut by outer Rotating
Barrel

II Block Chunk Sampler

Block or chunk can be obtained from open
excavation like test pit shaft ele
For Chunk Sampling it is necessary that the
Soil has some cohesion

iii Sounding Penetration test

Subsoil exploration can be done by following
Penetration test
a standard Penetration test SPT
b static cone Penetration test CPT
C Dynamic Cone Penetration test
d Pressure meter test
e Plate load test

C Dynamic lone Penetration test

In this test a cone which has an apex angle of
600 attached to the drill rod is driven into
the soil by blows of the hammer of 65 kg
falling freely from the height of 750 mm
 The blow count for every 100mm penetration is
noted continuously
The cone is driven Until refusal or upto the
required depth
The number of blows required for 30mm
penetration is noted as dynamic cone resistance
This test gives a continuous record of Ned
with depth
No Samples however can be obtained in this
test
Correlation between dynamic cone resistance
SPT Values can be referred as follows when
50 mm diameter cone is Used

Ned 1.5 N for depth up to 3m

Ned 1.76 N for depth upto 3 6 m
Nca 2 N for depth 6 m

d Pressure meter test

It is a form of load test the load in this cone
amos

is being applied by a uniform radial pressure

to the sides of the borehole in which a
pressuremeter is placed
These are two basic types of pressuremeter
 I The Menard Pressuremeter MPM which is
Lowered into a preformed Borehole
II The Self Boring pressuremeter SBP which
forms its Own Borehole thus causes much
less disturbance to the soil prior to the
testing
In this test elastic constants of the soil like
Menard's modulus of elasticity Menard's
Shear Modulus is also found

Note Relationship between Menard's modulus of

elasticity Em Young's Modulus of
elasticity
E is given by

E Em

Where d Rheological factor

Note In Clayey Soil Und rained Shear Strength can
also be determined as follows
Cu Pig

Where Pi limit Pressure

iv Geophysical Method
These methods were developed in Connection
with prospecting for Useful minerals oils
The major methods of these category are
a Gravitational method
b Magnetic method
C Seismic Refraction method
d Electrical Resistivity Method

c Seismic Refraction method

In this method shock waves are created into
the soil at their Ground level or certain depth
below it by exploding small charge
These waves are then detected by Geophones
where the time of travel gets seconded
Either number of Geophones along a line are
Used or shock producing device is moved
away from the Geophone to produce shock
waves in given interval
Some of the waves are directly released
gagged to
the geophones along the Ground surface
Whereas some are first penetrated downwards
into Underlying denser medium then
Reflected to the Geophones
Waves travel much faster in denser medium
As the distance between the shock point
Geophones increases the refracted waves are
able to reach earlier than direct wave to the
Geophone
The depth of boundary between two strata can
be estimated as
D
L YI Yi
Where Ve velocity of wave in Denser Medium
V1 Velocity of wave in loose medium
d Electrical Resistivity method
This method is based upon the measurement of
Changes in the mean resistivity or specific
resistance of various soil
The resistivity is defined as the resistance
between opposite faces of a Unit cube of the
material
Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon
water content compaction and mineral structure
This test is conducted by driving 4 metal
electrodes into the ground along the Straight
line at equal distance
A direct voltage is imposed between the two
 outer electrodes potential drop is measured
between the inner electrodes
The mean resistivity is given by

P 27 D 27 DR
Y
Where P Mean resistivity
D Distance between the electrode
E Potential drop between outer electrode
l current flowing between outer
electrode
R Resistance

This Resistivity is further Used to gauge the

properties of the soil
 ESE

Q The skin friction resistance of a pile driven in

Sand does not depend on
a lateral earth pressure coefficient
b Angle of friction between pile and soil
C Pile material
d Total Stress Analysis
IES 2019

Ans d Total Stress Analysis

Sol
skin friction resistance for a driven pile in
sand
Qf K Fav tan DXAsurface
where
K lateral earth pressure coefficient
I angle
of friction between pile and soil
K d depends upon the pile material

Q The Engineering News Record formula

Qa Wh
6S 0.25
 is used for the case of
1 Drop hammer
2 Single acting hammer
3 Double acting hammer
Which of the above are correct
a I
only
b 2 Only
C 3 Only
d I 2 and 3
IES 2016

Ans b 2 Only
Sol Empirical formula c taken as 0.25 am for
single acting hammer

Q A drop hammer is Used to drive a wooden pile

The hammer weight is 25 ten and its free
falling height is 0.8 m The Penetration in the
last blow is 12mm What is the nearest
approximation to the load Carrying Capacity of
the pile according to the Engineering News
formula
a125 KN
b I 10 KN
C 3000 KN
d 90 KN
IES 2014

Ans d 90 KN
Sol W L KN
h 0.8 m 80 cm
S 12 mm 1.2cm
As per engineering news formula

Qallowable Wh
Fos Ste
C 2.5cm for drop hammer
Fos 6
i Q 25 60
6 1.2 2.5
90 09 KN

Q When the observed Value of N exceeds 15 the

Corrected penetration number Nc as per
Terzaghi and Peck recommendation in the Silty
fine Sands will be
a 15 N R 15
L
b 15 NRT 15
L
 15 N R 15
1
d 15 15
12 Np

Where N Penetration number and Np Recorded

value
IES 2020

Ans 15 Nr 15
1
c

Sol
As per Terzaghi and Peck 1948
Corrected penetration number
No 15 N R 15

Q The observed N value from a standard

penetration
test conducted in saturated Sandy strata
is 30 the N value Corrected for dilatancy may
be taken as
a 15
b 20
C 23
d 39
IES 2011
Ans C 23
Sol N Value Corrected for dilatancy is N
N 15 N 15
2
15 30 15 22.5
2
23

Q Which technique of stabilization for the sub base

is preferred for a heavy plastic soil
acement stabilization
b Mechanical Stabilization
c lime stabilization
d Bitumen Stabilization
IES 2016

Ans C lime Stabilization

Sol lime changes the nature of the adsorbed
Layer and provides pozzolanic action
Plasticity
index of highly plastic soils are seduced
by addition as time with Soil There is an
increase in optimum water content and a
decrease in the maximum Compacted density
and the Strength and durability of soil
increases
 GATE

QA 0.5 Square concretepile is to be driven

0.5 m
in a homogeneous clayey soil having Undrained
Shear strength Cu 50 kPa and Unit weight
7 18.0 KN m The design Capacity of the pile
is 500 kN The adhesion factor h is given as
0.75 The length of the pile required for the
above design load with a factor of safety of
2 0 is
a 5.2m
b 58M
11 8 m
d 12.5 M
GATE 2018 Shift I

Ans 11.8 m
So1 Given Size of pile 0.5m X 0.5m
Undrained Shear Strength Cu 50 kPa
Unit weight 7 18 KN m
adhesion factor 2 0 75
Factor of safety 2
Design capacity of pile 500 kN
 Ultimate capacity of pile Qu 500 2 1000 KN

Qu C NcAp L Cu PL
1000 9 50 0.5 0.5 0.75 50 4 0.5 XL
11.83 m
I1 8 M

Q What is the Ultimate Capacity in kN of the pile

group shown in the figure assuming the group
to fail as a single Block

11111111 1111111111111
to m
0.4 m diameter piles
Clay soil
Cu GO KN m

1 2m Cle
of 0

K
12,14
a921.6
b 1177 6
C 2438.6
d 3481 6
GATE 2007
Ans d 3481 6
Sol Pile group is failing as a single Block

a igm

1 6 m 0.4m

Size of pilegroup t 6m X 1 6m
Ultimate capacity of pile group Bearing
capacity
at Base X Base area
surface area
frictional resistancex

au Abt fs As
CNC Ab 4 CuAs
40 9 1.6 1 64 I X40 XU XI 6 10
3481 6 KN

Q A Core cutter of 130 mm height has inner and

Outer diameters of 100 mm and 106 mm
respectively The area ratio of the core cutter
in o upto two decimal places is
GATE 2018 Shift I
Ans 12.36
Sol Given
Inner diameter D1 100 mm
Outer diameter 02 106 mm
i Are a ratio
Az DE D 2x 100
D2
1062 1002 100
1002
12 36
 SSC JE

Q A friction pile of diameter 50 em is embedded

15 m into the homogeneous Consolidated day
deposit Of the adhesion factor is 0.7 and
adhesion develops between the Clay and pile
Shaft is at m What is the Safe load t for
factor of safety 3.0
a 15
b 22
26
d 30
2017 Evening session

Ans b 22
Sol Given
D 50 cm o 5 m
15 M
2 0.7
Cu 4t m
FOS 3

Ultimate Bearing Capacity for faction pile

qu L Cu TI D L
 qu 0.7 4 X TI XO 5 15
65.97 t

Safe load
9safe 9u
Fos
65.97
3
21.99 I 22 t

Q If the damping ratio is given by 0.10 and

damping Coefficient is 225 kn s m The value
of critical damping ratio kN s m
22 5
b 225
C 2250
d 2500
2017 Morning Session

Ans C 2250
So1 Damping ratio 0.1
Damping Coefficient
C 225 kN S M
 Damping ratio C
Cc critical dampingCoefficient
O I 225
Cc
cc
28
2250

Q When Compared with open caissons floating

caissons generally
a Have a
higher load carrying capacity
b Have a slow and inconvenient installations
C Are less expensive
d Have a
greaterdepth below the ground surface
2018 Morningsession

Ans C Are less expensive

Q The lime stabilization is

very effection in treating
Sandy soils
b Silty soils
Non plastic soils
d Plastic clayey soils
2013
Ans d Plastic clayey soils
Sol lime is used for the stabilisation of highly
Plastic soil like Black Cotton Soil
Thefine day particles react with lime and get
flocculated or aggregated into larger
particle
groups which are fairly stable even
Under subsequent soaking
Due to this flocculation the lime treated days
indicate different grain size distribution