Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is the second layer out of seven layers in the OSI model. The Data Link
Layer’s primary duty is to move the datagram across a specific link. It is the model
which transfers data nodes to nodes. The data links major role is transmitting data or information
error free. It also responsible to organize data into for encoding, decoding, and controlling
incoming and outgoing data and, how devices on the network communicate .
Sdlc uses a primary and secondary architecture. One station is the primary station and the
remaining stations are secondary. Each secondary stations has its own address the nodes send
data received by the primary node . Data is processed only through the primary node.
The primary station role is to,
 Establisb control and tear down SDLC conection
 Manage connections and poll secondary stations in a specific order to determine whether
they want to transmite data
There are seven data link layer protocols
 Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC)
 High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC)
 Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP)
 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 Link Access Procedure (LAP)
 Link Control Protocol (LCP)
 Network Control Protocol (NCP)

1. Synchronous Data Link Protocol(SDLC)

Synchronous data link protocol is transmission protocol developed in 19874 by IBM used to
synchronously transfer code-transparent, serial-by-bit data over a communication channels.
SDLC is the Layer 2 protocol for IBM’s Systems Network Architecture (SNA) which uses
commands to to control data transfer.
In Synchronous data link protocol all of data and control transmission are simply organized and
managed in specific format that is basically known as transmission frame. Transmission
frame(SDLC frame) is know to simply transfer control information and data of users when
sending or receiving.
It allows and gives permission to receiving stations to
 Determine starting and end of frame.
 Identify whether frame is made or intended for that particular station.
  Identify actions that are needed to be performed with received information or data.
 Detect and identify error occurred during transmission in received frames.
 Acknowledge its frames receipt to transmitting station.

Each transmission frame on Synchronous Data Link has specific frame format
The format fields are
 Flag Field, the Flag (F) is beginning frame that represents beginning of frame. This field
is used to initiate and terminate occurrence of error by regular checking.
 Address Field, Address (A) filed follows just after beginning flag. It is used to identifies
and determines secondary station that is transmitting frame. This is done because frame
contains information or data regarding group address, specific address. Broadcast
address, etc.
 Control Field, Control © field follows just after address field. It is used to specify
functions of particular frame. This field present three types of formats the unnumbered(u)
format, supervisory(s) format, and information (I) format.
It is required to perform various functions such as to transfer data or information, to control
sequence in which frames are needed to sent and number of frames.
 Information Field , Information (I) field follows just after control field. This field is an
optional field that mainly contains information data. The data is needed to be transmitted
on data link is present in this field.
 FCS Field, Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field follows just after information field. This
field especially allows and grants permission to receiving stations to simply ensure and
check transmission accuracy of frame. This field simply checks received frame for any
kind of error that might have been occurred by link connection.
 Ending Flag Field, This field indicates ending of frame
Key features of SDLC is it operates independently on each communications link. It can also mix
full-duplex primary stations and half-duplex secondary stations on four-wire circuits to help
lower the cost of dedicated facilities.
What are some SDLC connection configurations?
SDLC supports numerous connection configurations, topologies and data links like
 Point-to-point, There are only two nodes: primary and secondary.
 Multipoint, This includes one primary node and multiple secondary nodes.
 Loop, The first node (primary) is connected to the secondary nodes and has two nodes on
either side.
  Ring topologies are also possible in SDLC. Here, a primary node controls a ring of
secondary nodes and is itself part of this ring.
As a conclusion SDLC simplifies the data control process into a basic pattern. Data moves from
the higher layers to the lower layers and eventually reaches the communication port. SDLC is the
primary protocol and is vital in the entire layering and data transfer process.
2. High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
High level data Layer 2 WAN Encapsulation Protocol that we use it on Synchronous data
links .High level data link control basically provides reliable delivery of data frames over a
network or communication link. HDLC provides various operations such as framing, data
transparency, error detection, and correction, and even flow control. Primary stations simply
transmit commands that contain address of secondary stations. The secondary station then simply
transmits responses that contain the primary address. Lastly, there is no Authentication
mechanism in HDLC. So, security is a concern for this WAN protocol
HDLC frame types
There are three types of HDLC frames this are,
• Information frames (I-frames), which transmit user data from the computer
network layer and incorporate error control information with the data. I-frames
also contain control fields used to define data functions.
• Supervisory frames (S-frames), which transmit error and Flow control data
whenever it becomes impossible to “piggyback” on transmitted data. For this
reason, S-frames don’t contain information fields.
• Unnumbered frames (U-frames), which are for all other miscellaneous purposes,
including link management. Some of these contain information fields, and others
do not.

HDLC Encapsulation Protocol :

Every High level data link frame contains a minimum of six to seven fields, such as FCS (Frame
Check Sequence), information, control, and start/end flag fields.
Fields present in the standard HDLC protocol are
 The flag field is responsible for initiation and termination of error checking. In HDLC
protocol, there is no start and stop bits. So, the flag field is basically using delimiter 0x7e
to simply indicate beginning and end of frame. It is 8 bits, and part of the complete
HDLC frame
  Address field includes HDLC address of secondary station. It helps to identify secondary
station will sent or receive data frame. This field also generally consists of 8 bits
therefore it is capable of addressing 256 addresses. This field can be of 1 byte or several
bytes long, it depends upon requirements of network. Each byte can identify up to 128
stations. Typically a single byte, but can be extended to multiple bytes
 Control field uses this field to determine how to control process of communication. The
control field is different for different types of frames in HDLC protocol. The types of
frames can be Information frame (I-frame), Supervisory frame (S-frame), and
Unnumbered frame (U-frame).Can be 8 or 16 bits
 Information field: This field usually contains data or information of users sender is
transmitting to receiver in an I-frame and network layer or management information in
U-frame. It also consists of user’s data and is fully transparent. The length of this field
might vary from one network to another network. Information field is not always present
in an HDLC it can be variable, and is not used in some HDLC frames
 Frame check sequence (FCS) field is used for identification of errors i.e., HDLC error
detection. In FCS, CRC16 (16)bit Cyclic Redundancy Check) or CRC32 (32-bit Cyclic
Redundancy Check) code is basically used for error detection. CRC calculation is done
again in receiver. If somehow result differs even slightly from value in original frame, an
error is assumed. Can be 16 or 32 bits
Verify HDLC Encapsulation we cannot use show running-config command. So, we must use
show interfaces (Interface) command identify and view type of encapsulation in interface.

Troubleshoot HDLC Encapsulation :

To view and know present status of serial interface, we can use two types of commands the show
ip interface brief and show interfaces [interface]. The show controllers command are important
because it helps troubleshooting serial lines. This command also showed id a cable is attached to
interface or not.
3. Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) is the protocol which TCP/IP uses when operating through a
serial connection. It is commonly used on dedicated serial links and dial-up connections that
operate at speeds between 1200bps and 19.2Kbps or higher. SLIP is relatively simple and
compact form so it is well suited for use.
SLIP is a deprecated protocol that is still in use in some places like IBM OS. It encloses the
Internet Protocol (IP) packet. does not provide authentication and data is transferred in
synchronous form. It does not support error detection or compression. And SLIP requires the
settings to be coded in advance in order to make a successful connection
Serial line internet protocol works only with TCP/IP. There is no method to indicate protocol
type because it lacks a type field. As a result, SLIP cannot be utilized to perform numerous
protocol functions.
What are the characteristics of serial line internet protocols
 It introduces two special characters END(decimal 192) and ESC(decimal 129).
Depending, on whether data byte code represents END or ESC character, the two byte
sequence of ESC and octal 334 or ESC and octal 335 respectively is sent in data packet.
 There is no maximum packet size in SLIP since it has no standard specification.
However, the widely accepted value is 1006 bytes of datagram for both sending and
receiving.
 The sender and receiver should be aware of IP address for both ends while using SLIP.
 It only supports static assignment during IP addressing.
 It transfers data in synchronous form.
 A SLIP frame consists of a payload (data) and a flag to act as a end delimiter.

4. Point to point protocol(PPP)

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a more advanced and generalized protocol than that of SLIP,
having some additional features such as authentication, error control, and the protocol of network
layer independence. It is most sought-after for setting up end-to-end channels over the serial link
joined in a range of networking settings.
PPP is made up of three main components:
• Encapsulation: A way to encapsulate multiprotocol datagrams
• Link Control Protocol (LCP): Used to establish, configure, and test the data link
connection
• Network Control Protocols (NCP): Used to establish and configure different types
of network layer protocols
Features of PPP
 Authentication: PPP includes authentication mechanisms such as Password
 Authentication Protocol (PAP) and Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol
(CHAP) to ensure secure communication.
  Error detection and correction: PPP uses error detection and correction mechanisms such
as CRCs And acknowledgments to ensure the integrity of the transmitted data.
 Network layer protocol independence: PPP is independent of the Network layer protocol
Being used, making it compatible with various network protocols.
 Multilink support: PPP supports multilink connections, which allow multiple physical
connections to be combined to increase the data transmission rate.
PPP Frame Format
 Flag field, PPP frame is almost similar to HDLC frame, always begins and ends with
standard HDLC flag. It always has a value of 1 byte i.e., 01111110 binary value.
 Address field, is broadcast address. In this, all 1’s simply indicates that all of the stations
are ready to accept frame. It has the value of 1 byte i.e., 11111111 binary value. PPP on
the other hand, does not provide or assign individual station addresses.
 Control field, uses format of U-frame i.e., Unnumbered frame in HDLC. In HDLC,
control field is required for various purposes but in PPP, this field is set to 1 byte i.e.,
00000011 binary value. This 1 byte is used for a connection-less data link.
 Protocol field, identifies network protocol of the datagram. It usually identifies the kind
of packet in the data field like what exactly is being carried in data field. This field is of 1
or 2 bytes and helps in identifies the PDU (Protocol Data Unit) that is being encapsulated
by PPP frame.
 Data field, contains the upper layer datagram. Network layer datagram is particularly
encapsulated in this field for regular PPP data frames. Length of this field is not constant
rather it varies.
 FCS field, contains checksum simply for identification of errors. It can be either 16 bits
or 32 bits in size. It is also calculated over address, control, protocol, and even
information fields. Characters are added to frame for control and handling of errors.
5. Link Access Procedure (LAP)
Link Access Procedure(LAP) is basically considered as an ITU family of Data Link Layer (DLL)
protocols that are subsets of High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC). LAP is particularly derived
from IBM’s System Development Life Cycle (SDLC).
There are several LAP protocols. Each of these protocols is usually a subset of HDLC tailored
for a particular purpose. These are
 Multilink Procedure (MLP), allows for Multilink Operations. It is an upper sublayer of
the DLL that usually operates among Packet Layer and a multiplicity of SLP’s (Single
Data Link Protocol) functions. It is generally an extension of LAPB that simply gives
permission for multiple physical links along with providing better throughput.
 Link Access Procedure for Modems (LAPM) is used in V.32 error-correcting modems
and V.42 modems. Transmission among LAPM is synchronous even though transmission
among computer and modem is asynchronous.
  Link Access Procedure for Frame Relay (LAPF) provides data link for frame relay
networks and is designed for use along with frame relay. It is also required or carrying
data only and even there is no signaling at DLL for performing flow and error control. It
is also a part of network’s communications protocol. LAPF simply ensures that whether
frames are error-free and executed in correct sequence or not. It does not make use of
C/R.
 Link Access Procedure for Half-Duplex (LAPX) LAPX, used for ship-to-shore
transmission.

6. Link Control Protocol (LCP)

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) provides a standard way to transport multiprotocol data over point-
to-point links; within PPP, Link Control Protocol (LCP) establishes, configures and tests data
link internet connections.
In a communications link, the devices using PPP employ multiple LCP frames to conduct LCP
operations.
In total, there are 11 LCP frame types defined in the main PPP document. These are grouped into
three classes:
1. Link configuration packets/frames, Used to establish and configure a link, and to verify
peer identification, Four frames used.
2. Link maintenance packets, Used to estimate optimal data packet size and manage and
debug a link, Five frames used.
3. Link termination packets, Used to terminate a link if available resources exceed
requirements, Two frames used.
LCP and authentication protocols on PPP
To establish a PPP session, LCP can negotiate various types of authentication protocols,
including the following:
 Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) Which is used To transmit usernames and
passwords in clear text using a two-way handshake.
 Shiva PAP (SPAP) Is Vendor-specific PAP.
 Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) Creates a secure password shared
by the user and CHAP server for secure communications and is more secure than PAP or
SPAP.
 Microsoft CHAP (MS-CHAP) which is More secure than regular CHAP.
7. Network Control Protocol (NCP)
NCP was a unidirectional or simplex protocol between two computers or devices. It provided
user access and flow control to use computers and devices at remote locations and to transmit
files between them. The NCP also allows protocols other than IP to use the serial link at the same
time.
Protocols in NCP:
 Encryption Control Protocol (ECP): It is needed to configure, enable, disable, negotiate
and control or maintain data encryption algorithms on both ends of the PP connection.
 Compression Control Protocol (CCP): CCP is basically responsible for configuring,
enabling, disabling, negotiating, and controlling or maintaining data compression
algorithms on both ends of the PP connection.
 Bridging Control Protocol (BCP): BCP is responsible for configuring, enabling,
disabling, negotiating, and controlling or maintaining bridge control modules on both
ends of the PP connection. It is similar to IPCP but rather than routing, it initializes
bridging.
Examples of internet protocol control
 Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP): IPCP’s main task is the configuration of
the IP addresses over a point-to-point link. LCP or Link control protocol and IPCP of
them use exact packet exchange mechanisms.
 OSI Network Layer Control Protocol (OSINLCP): OSI protocol modules are
configured, enabled and disabled by OSINLCP on either end of the PPP link.
 Internetwork Packet Exchange Control Protocol (IPXCP): Internet Packet Exchange
(IPX) modules on either end of the PPP link are configured, enabled, and disabled
with the help of IPXCP.
 IPv6 Control Protocol (IPV6CP): It helps in the configuration of the IPv6 addresses it
also enables and disables IP protocol modules over PPP.
 NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol (NBFCP): NBF protocol modules on either end of
the PPP link are configured, enabled and disabled by NBFCP.