4.

0 SUBSTRUCTURE

4.1 Introduction to Substructure

Substructure is defined as all structure below the superstructure which in general terms is considered
to include all structure below ground level including foundation.

Functional requirements of substructures are:

a) The combined, dead, imposed and wind loads on a building must be transmitted to the ground
safely, without causing deflection or deformation of the building, or movement of the ground
that would impair the stability of the building and/or neighbouring structures.
b) Foundation should also be designed and constructed to resist any movements of the subsoil.
c) Foundation should be designed so that any settlement is both limited and uniform under the
whole building. This settlement should be limited to avoid damage to service pipes and drains
connected to the building.

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4.2 Foundation
Foundation refers to the lower part of a structure, which is designed to supports the loads super-
imposed to it and distribute the weight of the building evenly to the soil and provide a firm footing.

There are a very wide range of foundation types suitable for different applications, depending
on considerations such as:

a) The nature of the load requiring support.

b) Ground conditions.
c) The presence of water.
d) Space availability.
e) Accessibility.
f) Sensitivity to noise and vibration.

The functions of foundation are:

a) Avoid unequal settlement

b) Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.
c) Allow building over water or water-logged ground
d) Resist uplifting or overturning forces due to wind
e) Resist lateral forces due to soil movement
f) Increase structural stability.
g) Distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of soil.

Factors in choosing suitable foundation design:

Factors Details
1. Loads Life load, dead load and wind load.
2. Subsurface condition Chemical reaction, underground water level
and bearing capacity of the soil.
3. Technology and manpower Equipment, machinery and manpower.
4. Cost Budget/allocation from the client.
5. Building design and types Residential, commercial, high rise, wide span.
6. Type of structure Framed structure or load-bearing wall.

4.2.1 Types of foundation

Shallow foundation
Shallow foundations are typically used where
the loads imposed by a structure are low relative to
the bearing capacity of the surface soils.

Foundation Deep foundation

Deep foundations are necessary where the bearing
capacity of the surface soils is not adequate to support
the loads imposed by a structure and so those loads need
to be transferred to deeper layers with higher bearing
capacity.

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The differences between shallow and deep foundation are given in the following table:

Sources Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation

1 Definition Foundation which is placed A foundation which is placed at a
near the surface of the earth greater depth or transfers the loads
or transfers the loads at to deep strata.
shallow depth.
2 The depth of The depth of a shallow Greater than the shallow foundation.
the foundation foundation is generally about
3 meters or the depth of the
foundation is less than the
footing width.
3 Cost A shallow foundation is Deep foundations are generally more
cheaper. expensive than shallow foundations.
4 Feasibility Shallow foundations are The construction process of a deep
easier to construct. foundation is more complex.
5 Mechanism of Shallow foundations transfer Deep foundations rely both on end
load transfer loads mostly by end bearing. bearing and skin friction, with few
exceptions like end-bearing pile.
6 Advantages Construction materials are Foundation can be provided at a
available, less labour is greater depth, provides lateral
needed, the construction support and resists uplift, effective
procedure is simple at an when foundation at shallow depth is
affordable cost, etc. not possible, can carry a huge load,
etc.
7 Disadvantages Possibility of a settlement, More expensive, needs skilled labors,
usually applicable for complex construction procedures, can
lightweight structure, weak be time-consuming and some types of
against lateral loads, etc. deep foundations are not very
flexible, etc.
8 Types Pad or isolated foundation, Pier foundation, pile foundation,
strip foundation, raft or mat caissons etc.
foundation, combined
foundation, etc.

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4.2.1.1 Shallow foundation
Typically, a shallow foundation is one that is wider than it is deep. Shallow foundations can also be
called spread or open footings.

Shallow foundations are more economical as it doesn’t require much digging or boring into the earth.

Shallow foundations are useful when the building isn’t exceedingly heavy and the soil can bear a
significant amount of weight.

Shallow foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the
imposed loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-
compacted fill, peat and etc.

They include pad foundations (isolated footing), strip foundations and raft foundations.

This type of foundation usually refers to those being rested on stratum with adequate bearing capacity
and laid less than 3m below ground level.

A combination of two or three type of shallow foundation in one single structure is common.

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4.2.1.2 Deep foundation

Deep foundations are required when building on sand and other soft soil that will not be able to
absorb the load of the building. Instead, a foundation must be established deep underground or even
underwater, where contact with stronger layers of the earth can be established.

Deep foundations become essential to the construction of large structures such as bridges, piers, and
dams or those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface that is usually at depths >3 m
below finished ground level.

They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated foundations using deep basements and also
deep pad or strip foundations. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper,
more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

4.2.2 Types of shallow foundation

i. Pad foundation
ii. Strip foundation
iii. Raft foundation

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4.2.2.1 Pad foundation

▪ This type of foundation is used to support and transmit the loads from piers and columns or
can be used to carry point loads.
▪ The most economic plan shape is a square.
▪ The loads of the wall and the buildings are transferred through ground beams that rest on the
pad foundations. Pad Foundations transfer the loads to a lower level where soil of sufficient
loadbearing strata exists.
▪ The width of pad foundation can be increased to distribute over a greater area, thus reducing
the pressure on the ground.
▪ The pad foundation is not suitable for large and high-rise building because it needs to carry high
load, which is not practical and uneconomical.
▪ Normally constructed from reinforced concrete (RC). Steel reinforcement is added in the
construction to strengthen and reduce thickness of the foundation.
▪ High yield steel bars are normally used as the reinforcement.

a) Column stump and footing

Column stump is commonly used together with pad footings to received and transfer loads to
foundation footings. A concrete pad footing is the simplest and most cost-effective footing used for
the support and transfer of building loads to the ground. Concrete pad footings are "isolated" i.e. there
is no connection between them.

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 b) Construction methods

Excavation works for pier holes or isolated pits Pits are excavated down to the necessary level
of pad foundation (base of column). Pile caps and the sides of the excavation are temporary
primarily used as foundation pads for columns supported.
and piers.

Spacer block

Install the formwork for pad footing. Lay lean concrete or spacer block (50mm)
before Install reinforcement and column stump
into pad footing formwork.

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 Pour concrete into the formwork of pad Dismantle the formwork of pad footing.
footing, vibrate and curing process.

Install the formwork for column stump. Pour Dismantle the formwork of column stump.
concrete, vibrate and curing process.

4.2.2.2 Strip foundation

Strip foundations are used to support and transmit the loads from heavy wall. Strip foundations
consist of a continuous strip, usually of concrete, formed centrally under LOAD BEARING WALLS
(buildings designed without columns). Load bearing wall carries imposed loads such as loads from the
beam, floor slab, roof and others. Wall also carries dead load which is itself weight. Load Bearing Wall
is constructed using engineering brick. However, precast or cast in situ concrete wall is presently used.

Since a wall is a linear component, the foundation constructed under the wall follows its length,
therefore it is called a strip foundation. The continuous strip of concrete is spread in TRENCHES that
have been excavated down to an undisturbed level of compact soil. Types of strip foundations are
Ordinary strip foundation, Wide strip foundation and Deep strip foundation

a) Ordinary strip foundation

Suitable for high load bearing capacity and non – cohesive soil such as gravel.

Ordinary Strip Foundation

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b) Wide strip foundation
Suitable for low load bearing capacity . Examples are soft clay and filled area

Wide Strip Foundation

c) Deep strip foundation

Used on silty clay or peat soil that tends to expand or shrink depending on the moisture content

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 d) Construction methods for deep strip foundation

Narrow excavations primarily for strip foundations and buried services.

Install formwork for strip footing, install spacer block/lean concrete before install reinforcement.

Pour concrete, vibrate and curing process

After pour the concrete , it should be flatten/level its surface before install brick as a wall. DPC
should be install 150mm from the ground to prevent the moisture enter to the wall.

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4.2.2.3 Raft foundation
Raft foundation or mat foundation is a large thick concrete slab reinforced with steel which covers the
entire contact area of the structure like a thick floor under the whole of a building.

The reinforced concrete raft is designed to support and transmit the whole load of the building from
the raft to the ground. The purpose of this is to spread the weight of the load over a larger area to
reduce stress on foundation soils.

A raft is usually used when subsoil is weak, columns are closely located and with deviated loadings or
for soil that tends to settle unevenly when subjected to load.

It also serves as a transfer slab to combine and tie up all the vertical loading elements to the plate-
form foundation. By doing so, differential settlement can be avoided, which is something that neither
pad foundation or strip foundation can achieve.

Categories of raft foundation:

i) Solid slab Raft/Flat Slab Raft Foundation

ii) Beam and slab Raft Foundation
iii) Cellular Raft Foundation

a) Solid Slab Raft /Flat Slab Raft.

Suitable for 2 storey building and less, where the load imposed is small, the max. of 300mm thick
slab is sufficient. These are constructed of uniform thickness over the whole raft area.

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 `

b) Beam and Slab Raft

If the required slab thickness is more than 300mm due to the high building load, then is more
appropriate to use beam and slab raft foundation. Beam and slab rafts are alternatives to the solid
slab raft and are used where poor soils are encountered. The beams can be upstand or downstand
depending upon the bearing capacity of soil near the surface. Downstand beams will give a saving
on excavation costs whereas upstand beams create a usable void below the ground floor if a
suspended slab is used.

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 c) Cellular raft

Suitable for loose soil or for soil that tends to settle unevenly such as back filled inactive mining site.
The thickness of the constructed foundation may exceed 1m. This type of foundation consists two
slabs where a beam is constructed of two slabs in both directions forming hollow cellular raft
foundation.

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 d) Construction methods for beam and slab raft foundation

1) Excavation for raft foundation follow the 2) Formwork for raft foundation, put hardcore
floor area. and sand blinding

4) Install reinforcement (put spacer block) and

make sure all the services are ready before
3) Lay Damp Proof Membrane (DPM) pour concrete into the formwork

5) Pour concrete, vibrate and curing 6) Dismantle formwork.

process 7)

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5.0 SUPERSTRUCTURE

5.1 Concrete Mix

Concrete widely used in building construction, for column, beam and floor slab. Also used in
construction of bridge, sewerage work, road, railway track, dam and other structure. Typically a 1 mix
of concrete is used:

1:3:6 Cement + Coarse + Sand

one-part Cement
three ports Fine aggregate (sand)
six parts Coarse aggregate (gravel)
+ Water
+ Admixture

5.1.1 Cement

a. Ordinary Portland Cement

b. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
c. Low Heat Portland Cement
d. Sulphate resistance Cement
e. Coloured Cement

The strength of concrete depends on the fineness of cement and the chemical reaction of cement
from the hydration process. The concrete strength increases when the fineness of cement particles
increases.

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5.1.2 Aggregates

Can be divided into 2 types that is FINE AGGREGATE and COARSE AGGREGATE:

a) Fine aggregates (sand)

Size smaller than 5mm and can be obtained from rivers and mining.

b) Coarse aggregates
Size greater than 5mm and can be obtained from the quarry.

5.1.3 Water

Used in concrete mix to produce a chemical reaction with cement for purpose of bonding fine and
coarse aggregate. When water is added to cement, hydration process causes solidification and
hardening of the concrete mix.

5.1.4 Admixtures

Admixtures are added to the concrete mix immediately before or during mixing in order to modify or
improve one or more of the specific properties of concrete.

5.1.4.1 Purpose of admixtures:

a) To improve the workability of fresh concrete.
b) To improve durability by entrainment of air.
c) To reduce the water required.
d) To accelerate setting and hardening and thus produce high early strength.
e) To retard setting.
f) To aid curing.

5.1.4.2 Types of admixtures

a) Accelerator

Calcium chloride is the usual accelerator used in concrete work. This material is used to
increase the rate of setting and hardening. Overdosing of the accelerator in the mix causes
corrosion to the reinforcement bar. This material is used in building structures where early
removal of formwork is necessary and in cold climate countries.

b) Retarders

This material is used to delay the setting time of initial solidification and it is able to delay the
setting time by up to one hour. Usually, it is used in hot climate countries to overcome the
effects of high ambient temperature to concrete. It helps to reduce drying shrinkage in
concrete. Normally the typical compounds used as retarders are sugar, soluble zinc and
soluble borates.

c) Water-reducing admixtures

Admixture is required to act as a dispersing agent in concrete and increase cohesiveness. It

can maintain the desired workability of the mix even though the water-cement ratio reduces.
This type of admixture is required to make high-strength concrete. Typical materials used are
natrium-gluconate and calcium-lignosulfonate.

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 d) Air Entraining Admixtures

This material used to trap air in concrete. The use of this material improves the workability of
concrete work without using much water. This admixture is normally used in cold climate
countries.

The types of agents used are natural wood resin, various sulfonated compounds, some animal
and vegetable fat and oils, and synthetic detergents or gas generates.

e) Accelerators Water reducing

This material is used to increase workability with a faster gain of strength. Type of agents are
a mixture of calcium chloride and lignosulphonate. The disadvantage of using this admixture
is the risk of corrosion.

5.2 Concrete forms

Concrete forms are fresh concrete and hardened concrete.

5.2.1 Fresh concrete

Wet concrete is known as fresh concrete in which concrete can be moulded and is in a plastic state.
This is also called “Green Concrete” or consistence, which is the ease with which concrete will flow.
The main properties of fresh concrete are workability.

The type of test usually conducted to measure workability at the construction site is the SLUMP TEST.
Slump test equipment are:

i. Frustum cone with 300mm high and upper end diameter of 100mm, lower end diameter
200mm. Two handles at its sides.
ii. Compacting steel rod, 16mm diameter, 600 mm long.
iii. Ruler.
iv. Base Plate.

Method and procedures for Slump Test are:

i. Place frustum cone on the base plate
ii. Fill the wet concrete/fresh concrete in the 3 equal layer.
iii. Compact each layer 25 times using compacting steel rod and top surface is struck off by means
of sawing and rolling motion of the tamping rod.
iv. The cone is slowly lifted and observed the slump
v. Invert the frustum and place it close to the collapsed concrete.
vi. Measure and record the slump and type of slump.

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The results of slump test are:

i. There are 3 types of slump, TRUE SLUMP, SHEAR SLUMP and COLLAPSE SLUMP.
ii. Quality concrete is concrete which is experiences true slump. TRUE SLUMP happens because
of its cohesiveness and rich mixes. Rich mix is a mixture that has more cement content. SHEAR
SLUMP happens due to inadequate mix means a mixture has less cement. Shear Slump shows
lack of cohesiveness in the concrete mix. The COLLAPSE SLUMP shows that the mix is too wet
and produces low quality concrete.

Magnitude of slump according to its uses

Slump (mm) Purpose of use

0 Pre-stressed concrete structures which is compacted using heavy vibrator
0-25 Mass concrete and pavement compacted using vibrator
25-50 Normal reinforced concrete which is vibrated and mass concrete which is
compacted by hand
50-100 Concrete with bent reinforcement that require vibration-for example floor, beam,
column and normal reinforced concrete wall which is compacted manually.
100-150 Concrete with heavy reinforcement that is compacted without using vibrator-this
compaction work is difficult to conduct

5.2.2 Hardened concrete

Concrete that has been solidified is known as hardened concrete. The main properties of hardened
concrete are:

i. Strength
ii. Durability
iii. Expansion and shrink

Strength concrete is influenced by several factors such as the following:

▪ Influence of material. Use different types of cement influences the strength of concrete.
▪ In terms of chemical composite, the use of rapid hardening cement can produce concrete of
earlier required strength, compared to concrete that uses different type of cement.
▪ Fineness of cement also influence the strength of concrete. Because cement with high fineness
can speed up the process of hydration, but it can cause shrinkage and cracking in concrete.
▪ Water/cement ratio can influence the hardened concrete strength. Concrete mixture which is
dry can produce high strength concrete however it is difficult to compact because its workability
is low. Concrete mixture which is too wet produces low quality concrete and the strength
reduced. Therefore, optimum water/cement ratio should be used to produce quality concrete.

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Methods of preparation of hardened concrete involve the following:

a) Batching
The cement, fine and coarse aggregates must be properly mixed in order to have a uniform
distribution among the materials

b) Water/cement ratio
Water is an important factor in preparing concrete. As such suitable water/cement ratio
must be identified to ease mixing and compacting processes as well as producing quality
concrete

c) Proportioning
The concrete proportion of 1:3:6 contains more aggregate when compared to 1:2:4.
Concrete proportioning is an important factor which influences the strength of concrete

d) Placing
Placing or pouring of concrete into mould not be higher than 1.5m to prevent bleeding and
segregation

e) Compacting
Process of compacting must be carried out in total at all area in the mould so there will be
no voids in concrete.

f) Effect of curing
▪ Is a process that prevents evaporation of water from newly poured concrete for a
specified period.
▪ This helps proper reaction between water and cement to take place.
▪ Curing reduces shrinkage stresses in immature concrete and cracking in concrete.
▪ This method of curing commonly used is by using wet gunny sacks which are watered
twice daily. Water proof paper or plastic can also be used to cover the surface of newly
poured concrete.
▪ Strength of concrete according to age:
AGE 3 days 7 days 28 days
Strength 30% 70% 100%
 Test to determine the strength of concrete are compression strength tests. The
compression strength test is carried out using CUBE TEST.

Cube test equipment are:

▪ Concrete cube mould of size 150mm or 100mm. It is used for aggregate size of not greater than
40mm and 25mm. Cube mould must be made from steel or cast iron with smooth inner
surfaces. Every mould must have steel base plate to support and to prevent leakage.
▪ Compacting steel rod with 16mm diameter, 600 mm long.
▪ Compression test machine.

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Methods and procedure for cube test are:

▪ Mould and base plate must be clean and applied with oil to prevent concrete from sticking to the
sides of the cube. Base plate is attached to the mould by using bolt and nut.
▪ Fill the cube with concrete in 3 layers
▪ Every layer must be compacted for 25 times. This process carried out systematically and
compaction is done uniformly to all surfaces of the concrete. Compaction can also be conducted
using machine.
▪ The surface of concrete must be smoothened so it will have the same level with the upper side
of the mould.
▪ Cubes which are made at construction site must be covered with plastic cover for a period of 24
hours before the mould can be dismantled.
▪ After remoulding, the concrete cubes are submerged in water for curing.
▪ Compression strength test must be carried out for concrete age 7, 14 and 28 days.

5.3 Reinforcement Bar

A rebar or reinforcement bar is a steel bar commonly used in reinforced concrete and reinforced
masonry structures. It is usually formed from carbon steel and is given ridges for better mechanical
anchoring into the concrete. Reinforcement prevents the concrete from cracking, buckling and caving
in when a load is placed on it by improving the tensile strength of the concrete and making it more
durable.

Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To
compensate for this imbalance in concrete's behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads.
Reinforcement can be used in the form of bars or rods that are either plain or deformed or in the form
of expanded metal, wire, wire fabric, or sheet metal. Each type is useful for different purposes and
structures.

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Reinforcement supplied in two basic types, namely Mild steel and High – Yield steel. The range of
nominal sizes available for both round and deformed bars are 6,8,10,12,16,20,25,32, and 40mm with
length specified by the purchaser. The bending of reinforcement can be carried out on site by using a
bending machine which shapes the cold bars by pulling them round a mandrel.

Any material specified for use as a reinforcement to concrete must fulfil certain requirements as
below:

i. It must have tensile strength.

ii. It must be capable of achieving this tensile strength without undue strain.
iii. It must be of a material that can be easily bent to any required shape.
iv. Its surface must be capable of developing an adequate bond between the concrete and
the reinforcement to ensure that the required design tensile strength is obtained.
v. A similar coefficient of thermal expansion is required to prevent unwanted stresses
being developed within the member due to temperature changes.
vi. It must be available at a reasonable cost which must be acceptable to the overall design
concept.

5.4 Formwork
Formwork for in-situ concrete work may be describe as mould or box into which wet concrete can be
poured and compacted so that it will flow and finally set to the inner profile of the box or mould.

To be successful in its function formwork must fulfill the following requirements:

i. It should be strong enough to support the load of wet concrete.

ii. It must not be able to deflect under load which would include the loading of wet concrete,
self-weight and any superimposed loads such as operatives and barrow runs over the
formwork.
iii. It must be accurately set out, concrete being a fluid when placed, it will take up the shape of
the formwork which must therefore be of the correct shape, size and right position.
iv. Material must be chosen so that it can be easily fixed using double-headed nails, round wire
nails or screws.
v. The design of the formwork units should be such that they can easily be assembled and
dismantled without any members being trapped.

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5.4.1 Material of formwork

The common materials for formwork are timber (plywood, softwood and chipboard), steel and
industrialized formwork system.

5.4.2 Types of formworks

5.4.2.1 Foundation formwork

Usually, the size or the height of the foundation form defines which type of design it is. The
formwork for individual foundations is similar to column form and the form of strip
foundations is similar to the wall formwork.

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5.4.2.2 Column formwork
A column form or box consists of vertical mould that are utilized to bolster forms or shape
for pouring concrete. It can be as simple as a strengthened cardboard tube for small
cylindrical columns or extremely complex forms built from numerous bits of wood and
metal.

5.4.2.3 Beam formwork

Consists of a 3-sided box which is supported by cross members called headtress which are
propped to the underside of the soffit board. Generally, the beam form is also used to
support the slab formwork and the two structural members are then cast together.

5.4.2.4 Slab formwork

Floor or roof slab formwork is sometimes called shuttering and consists of panels of the size
that can be easily handled. The panels can be framed or joisted and supported by the beam
forms with any intermediate propping is required.

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5.4.3 Installation and removal of formwork

When the formwork has been fabricated and assembled, the interior of the forms should be cleared
of all rubbish, dirt and grease before application of any mould oil or releasing agent.

The distance from the mixer to the formwork should be kept as short as possible to maintain
workability and avoid double handling.

Care must be taken when placing and compacting the concrete to ensure that the reinforcement is
not displaced.

The removal of concrete formwork also called as strike-off or stripping of formwork should be carried
out only after the time when concrete has gained sufficient strength upon instruction from an
engineer or agent. The appropriate time at which it is safe to remove formwork can be assessed by
test on cubes.

If the test cube is not available, the following table from BS8110 can be used as a guide:

Location Surface of air temperature

16 degree Celsius 7 degree Celsius
Vertical formwork 12 hours 18 hours
Slab soffit (props left under) 4 days 6 days
Removal of props 10 days 15 days
Beam soffit (props left under) 10 days 15 days
Removal of props 14 days 21 days

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5.4.4 Formwork failures

Formwork failures are the cause of many accidents and failures that occur during concrete
construction which usually happen when fresh concrete is being placed.

Generally, some unexpected event causes one member to fail, then others become overloaded or
misaligned and the entire formwork structure collapses.

Causes of formwork failures are:

a) Improper shoring.
b) Premature stripping of formworks.
c) Inadequate cross bracing and horizontal bracing of shores.
d) Supporting shores or jacks are displaced by vibration caused by passing traffic, movement of
workers and equipment on the formwork and the effect of vibrating concrete to consolidate
it.
d) Unstable soil under mudsills.
e) Inadequate control of concrete placement.
f) Lack of attention to formwork details or jointing.

5.5 Framed Structure

Framing means giving shape and support to a structure by combining components in a building. Hence,
a framed structure is a structure having the combination of a beam, column and slab to resist gravity
and other lateral loads. These structures are generally used to overcome the large forces, and
moments developing due to the applied loading.

In framed structure, the load transfer path is from slab to beam, beam to column and column to the
foundation. Wholistically, it forms a structural skeleton for the building which is used to support other
members such as roofs, walls, and claddings.

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There are basically three frames depending on the material used in construction:

Steel frame Concrete frame Wooden frame

Major parts of a concrete frame are columns, beams and slabs.

Upper slab/
suspended Slab
Upper beam

Column
Ground slab/
non suspended slab

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5.5.1 Column
Columns are an important structural member of a frame building. They are the vertical members
which carry the loads from the beam and upper columns and transfer it to the footings. The loads
carried may be axial or eccentric. Design of columns is more important than the design of beams and
slabs. This is because, if one beam fails, it'll be a local failure of one floor, but if one column fails, it can
lead to the collapse of the whole structure.

5.5.2 Beam
Beams are the horizontal load-bearing members of the framed structure. They carry the loads from
slabs and also the direct loads of masonry walls and their self-weights.

5.5.3 Slab
A slab is a flat horizontal place that is used for covering the building from the above and provide shelter
for the inhabitants. These are the plate element and carry the loads primarily by flexure. They usually
carry vertical loads.

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5.6 Column
A column is a vertical member carrying the beam and floor loadings to the foundation. Columns are
used for structural reinforcement, much like beams.

The minimum number of main bars in a column should not be less than four for rectangular columns
and six for circular columns. All bars in compression should be tied by a link passing around the bar in
such a way that it tends to move the bar towards the centre of the column.

5.6.1 Construction method

1) Install reinforcement to the 2) Install formwork. 3) Pour concrete according to

starter bar from column stump. specified grade of concrete.

4) Vibrator poker is 5) Remove formwork 6) Curing is done.

use to remove air when the concrete is
pocket. hard enough.

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5.7 Beam
Beams are horizontal structures in a building used to support the weight of floors, ceilings and roofs
of a building and to transfer the load to a vertical load-bearing element of the structure.

Beams are made of reinforced concrete (RC) or steel. The purposes of beams are to:

▪ Resist loads.
▪ Counter bending moment and shear forces.
▪ Connect the frame.
▪ Provide a uniform distribution of loads.

5.7.1 Ground beam

Ground beams also referred to as grade beams are designed to span between pad
foundations, piles etc. Typically, the ground beams are directly rested on the ground, sometimes they
can be supported by end piers.

The followings are the facts regarding the ground beam;

i. Typically ground beams are made of reinforced concrete.

ii. Ground beams are typically constructed at the foundation level.
iii. Ground beams support walls, joists, etc.
iv. It is provided where the soil-bearing capacity beneath the wall is poor.

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5.7.1.1 Construction methods
The steps involved in the construction of the ground beam process are preparation and excavation,
formwork installation, reinforcement placing and concrete pouring.

a) Preparation and excavation

▪ If the ground beam is constructed directly on the ground, then the ground surface will
be levelled and prepared with plain cement concrete to reinforce the ground beam.
▪ Where the ground beam is constructed between the foundation, construction
preparation and excavations will begin after the construction of piles.

b) Formwork installation

▪ Formwork will be placed according to the dimensions of the beam as specified in the
design drawings.
▪ Beam is constructed on the ground: Flat soling brick (base) is formed along the grade
beam and side shuttering is fixed at both sides of ground beam.

▪ Beam is constructed above the ground: Shutters shall be placed for the bottom and
both sides of the ground beam.
▪ After the completion of formwork, shuttering strength, waterproofness, strength of
formworks supports, verticality of side shutters, and etc. shall be checked.

Placement of reinforcement Shuttering bottom and one side of grade beam and placed
on flat soling bricks reinforcement.

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 c) Reinforcement placing

▪ Reinforcement detailing such as size, required length, number and spacing of stirrups
are provided in structural drawings.
▪ Fix the ground beam reinforcement after installation of side shutter.

d) Concrete pouring
▪ Poured concrete shall be compacted adequately using vibration equipment such as
vibration poker. Compaction is the process to prevent air pocket from building up inside
concrete and creating a honeycomb and must be done as the concrete is placed.

e) Curing

▪ Curing is a process that prevents the evaporation of water from newly poured
concrete for a specified period to reduce shrinkage stresses in immature concrete and
cracking in concrete.
▪ Curing commonly using wet gunny sacks which are watered twice daily. Waterproof
paper or plastic can also be used to cover the surface of newly poured concrete.
▪ The formwork can be removed 24 hours after pouring concrete and achieve its
strength based on the cube test result.

5.7.2 Upper beam

The slab is continuous over a number of beams. The slab is supported on 2.5 cm thick sheathing laid
parallel to most beams. Normally, the sheathing is held on wooden battens which are laid between
the beams, at some suitable spacing. The upper beams are constructed together with the slab.
Therefore, the methods of construction for upper beam will be explained further in the upper slab
topic.

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5.8 Slab
The term 'floor slab' usually refers to a floor that has been formed using concrete (and generally steel
reinforcement) and may form part of the structure of a building. It may form the floor of a basement,
at ground level or at upper levels.

The concrete slab construction process includes the preparation of formwork, compaction of a slab
bed, placement of reinforcement, pouring, compacting, finishing the concrete, removing formwork
and curing the concrete slab.

Upper Floor/Suspended Floor Solid Ground Floor

• Its structure consists of reinforced • Floor slab is constructed on and
concrete and floor finishes. supported by the ground
• Steel, timber and other building materials • The structure consists of a base, blinding,
are used in the construction of the upper concrete, damp proof membrane,
floor. screeding and floor finishes.

The functional requirements of a floor slab are:

a) Strength and stability

▪ The strength of floor structure should be adequate to carry dead load of the floor,
finishes, fixtures, partitions, services and expected imposed loads of occupants.

b) Resistance to weather and ground moisture

▪ The moisture below the ground affects the floor to wet slightly which feels cold and
dissatisfying. The moisture penetration level includes the nature of subsoil, water table,
and whether the site is horizontal or sloping.

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c) Durability and free from maintenance
▪ Ground floors and suspended floors secured by walls and roof must be durable for a
lifetime and require slight maintenance.
d) Fire resistance
▪ Floors should withstand fire for enough periods during which the occupant can get out
of the building. Rating of fire resistance that begins from 1 to 4 hours based on the types
of aggregate and the thickness of the concrete cover.

e) Resistance to the passage of heat

▪ Prevention of heat transfer from the floor to the ground or from ground to the floor by
applying hardcore and a damp-proof membrane (DPM). The DPM can be placed on,
under, or sandwiched in the concrete under the floor, will avoid floor damping and cold
feeling.

f) Resistance to passage of sound

▪ Upper floors work as barrier and prevent transmission of sound. Reinforced concrete
floor work better in preventing transmission of airborne sound compare to timber floor.
▪ Impact sounds can be decline effectively by applying floor covering, for example, carpet
or a resilient sheet under the surface of the floor. The resilient layer will diminish the
sound of footstep in either a reinforced concrete floor or a timber floor.

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5.8.1 Ground Floor Slab

The term 'floor slab' usually refers to a floor that has been formed using concrete and may form part
of the structure of a building. It may form the floor of a basement, at ground level or at upper levels.

Ground slabs are those slabs that are poured directly into excavated trenches in the ground. They rely
entirely on the existing ground for support. The ground must be strong enough to support the
concrete slab.

5.8.1.1 Materials
The construction of a solid ground floor/slab can be considered under three headings:

a) Hardcore
The purpose of hardcore is to fill in any small pockets which have formed during oversite
excavation, to provide a firm base on which to place a concrete bed and to help spread any
point loads over a greater area.

It also acts against capillary action of moisture within the soil. Hardcore is usually laid in 100-
150mm layers to the required depth and it is importance that each layer is well compacted
using a roller if necessary to prevent any unacceptable settlement beneath the solid slab.

b) Blinding
Blinding generally consists of a layer of sand 25-50m thick or a 50-75mm layer.

c) Concrete bed
i. Unreinforced or plain in situ concrete, 100-150 mm thick.
ii. Reinforced concrete, 150mm thick.
iii. The reinforcement used in concrete beds for domestic work is usually in the form of a
welded steel fabric BS4483. Sometimes a light square mesh fabric is placed 25mm
from the upper surface of the concrete to prevent surface crazing and limit the size of
cracking.

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d) Damp proofing

Damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture control applied to building walls and
floors to prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces that includes DPM and DPC.

▪ Protection of floors next to the ground: DAMP PROOF MEMBRANE (DPM)

A damp proof membrane (DPM) is a membrane material applied to a building to

prevent moisture transmission from the ground to the upper surface of the floor
through capillary action.

Suitable materials for damp-proof membranes are:

i) Polythene (LDPE) sheet with sealed joints is acceptable and will also give protection
against moisture vapour as well as moisture.
ii) Hot poured bitumen – should be at least 3mm thick
iii) Cold applied bitumen/rubber emulsion – should be applied in not less than 3 coats.
iv) Asphalt/pitch mastic -could be dual-purpose finish and damp proof membrane.

▪ Protection on the wall near to the ground: DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)

A damp-proof course (DPC) is a barrier through the structure designed to prevent moisture
rising by capillary action such as through a phenomenon known as rising damp. A DPC layer
is usually laid below all masonry walls.

DPC may be either horizontal or vertical and can generally be divided into 3 types:

i. Those below ground level to prevent the entry of moisture from the soil
ii. Those placed just above ground level to prevent moisture creeping up the wall by
capillary action. This is sometimes called rising damp.
iii. Those placed at openings, parapets and similar locations to exclude the entry of the
rainwater which falls directly onto the fabric of the structure.

The materials of DPC are lead, copper, bitumen, mastic asphalt, polythene and slates. DPC
should have the following properties:

▪ Be completely impervious
▪ Be durable, having a longer life than the other components in the building and therefore
should not need replacing during its lifetime.
▪ Be in comparatively thin sheets so as to prevent disfigurement of the building.
▪ Be strong enough to support the loads placed upon it.
▪ Be flexible enough to give with any settlement of the building without fracturing

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 Typical solid floor details at external wall Typical solid floor details at internal wall

5.8.1.2 Construction Method

Construction methods of ground floor slab are including assemble and erecting formwork, placing of
reinforcement, concreting, formwork removal and curing concrete.

a) Assemble and Erect Formwork

▪ Excavation involves moving earth, rocks or other material out of the site. It is carried
out in order to create a building foundation and to remove unwanted elements from
the site. Make sure that all formworks are credible and good before pouring in the
concrete.

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b) Prepare and Place Reinforcement
▪ After the formworks have been installed, laying of the reinforced slabs commences.
Ensure the reinforcement bars, spacers and ties are installed in accordance with the
approved building plans.

c) Pour, Compact and Finish Concrete

▪ The concrete is poured on top of the rods in the slab forms that have already been laid
out and is compacted using vibrator. This help the concrete to bind and mould into place
inside the formwork and around the reinforcement bars.

Pouring concrete compacting concrete Finish concrete

using vibrator

d) Curing Concrete and Remove Formwork

▪ Curing a concrete help delay drying shrinkage until the concrete is strong enough to
resist shrinkage cracking. It also helps the slab retain moisture so as to make the
concrete gain more strength.
▪ Curing a concrete slab involves approximately 7 days’ period. Spraying twice daily is
ideal. After 24 hours of the concrete being poured, the formwork can be removed.
▪ The slab can be walked on after 3 days, but avoid heavy loads for at least 7 days.

Curing concrete Remove formwork

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5.8.2 Upper Slab /Suspended Slab

Most building have reinforced concrete floor slab. The beams that support upper floor slab carry load
from the floor and distribute it to the supports.

5.8.2.1 Construction method

i. Install support and bracing to support ii. Put spacer block and install reinforcement
formwork. Install formwork for beam and for beam and slab. At the same time, all
slab. under slab services should be install.

iii. Pour concrete according to the specified iv. Vibrator poker is used to remove air pockets.
grade of concrete.

v. The formwork is removed as early as 7 days vi. Formwork and support can only be
after the concrete is poured. Within that removed when the concrete has achieved
period curing process is carried out. the required strength based on cube test
result.

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